Smokeless tobacco use, 90% of which occurs among males, typically begins in adolescence and significantly ceases by the end of young adulthood. This study tested the hypothesis that psychological factors consistent with the Theory of Triadic Influence (TTI) longitudinally predict male SLT acquisition and cessation. This is the first known study to test these predictions. TTI psychological risk factors (parental noncompliance, friend compliance, rebelliousness, and thrill-seeking) were assessed in a cohort of Washington State males participating in a 40 school district tobacco study. To predict acquisition of daily use, never SLT users had their risk factors assessed at age 12. Their SLT use was assessed at age 18 (N = 2,468; 94.8% 5-year retention). To predict cessation, all daily SLT users had their risk factors assessed at age 18. Their SLT cessation status was assessed at ages 20 and 28 (N = 182; 86.9% 10-year retention). All models were tested with logistic regressions adjusting for experimental condition, team sport participation, parental education, and clustering among participants in the same school district. Scoring high on the following psychological factors at age 12 increased the odds of daily SLT use at age 18: 156% increased odds for friend compliance (OR = 2.56; p <.001), 116% for rebelliousness (OR = 2.16; p <.001), and 133% for thrill seeking (OR = 2.33; p <.001). Parent noncompliance was not a significant predictor (p =.33) of SLT acquisition. None of the psychological factors at age 18 predicted SLT cessation at ages 20 or 28 (p value range: .13 to .94). This study provides the first evidence that friend compliance, rebelliousness, and thrill-seeking strongly predict SLT acquisition among males. However, there was no evidence that the psychological factors predicted SLT cessation. Targeting these psychological predictors early may help prevent SLT use among males.

Recovery after severe skeletal muscle crush injury is a major research focus, especially for the armed forces and after major natural disasters. Evaluation of statistics in major American wars displays astonishing numbers of severely injured soldiers, many of them undergoing amputations of major limbs. Much of the research has focused on recovery from exercise-induced muscle injury but little is known about crush injury-induced recovery pattern. Cytokines such as interleukins and tumor-necrosis factors recruit immune cells to the site of injury to clear cell debris, repair cell injury, and stimulate the growth of satellite cells. The time course for the expression of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha is not well characterized in injured skeletal muscle of mice. The purpose of our investigation is to develop a crush injury animal model to study the expression pattern of these proinflammatory cytokines in the recovery process following crush injury. In our experiments, RNA was extracted and reverse transcribed into cDNA from the right gastrocnemius of injured mice for qPCR to determine the expression levels of IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha at 0, 4, 8, 24, 48 and 72 hours post injury. From preliminary data, we see a linear increase in TNF-alpha expression from 0 to 24 hours, and a rapid increase in IL-1beta and IL-6 with a linear decrease over the following 4-24 hour time points. Analysis of later time points is ongoing. This work provides a baseline in preparation of treatment trials to study the healing process and related cytokine production following injury. By understanding the time course and functions of these cytokines and how they interact, we can contribute to the scientific foundation for evaluating the effectiveness of therapies used in managing wounded soldiers.

 The social phenomenon of mass incarceration has opened the door to a full range of perplexing issues that continue to stymie researchers and policy makers. One particular and obdurate social problem is sexual offending, which seems immune to the so-called "evolving standards of decency" ideas espoused by the United States Supreme Court. Whereas society's rules of law and punishment are theoretically evolving to become more civilized and less barbaric, the practices of many of its citizens, including sex offenders, is not keeping pace with the evolution of ideas and behaviors. In fact, sex offenses are a ubiquitous fact of life - directly or indirectly - for many people in the United States. Not even a prison mandate issued by President George Bush in 2003 called the Prison Rape Elimination Act has positively affected the problem of sexual victimization in prison. This research seeks to add prisoners' voices to the ongoing conversation that exists among researchers and policy developers on the complicated and emotionally charged subject of sex offenders. This research asks a simple question: What are prisoner attitudes about sex offenders? The hypothesis maintains that inmate attitudes, when measured by the CATSO (Community Attitudes Toward Sex Offender) scale, will mirror mainstream attitudes that have been measured using the same instrument. The purpose of this study is to improve prison policies that pertain to sexual victimization by revealing a piece of the prison rape and prison violence puzzle that may be hidden within the attitudes of men and women held captive in U.S. prisons. 

Women who are targets of a positive stereotype (i.e., women are nurturing) assume that the stereotyper also holds negative stereotypes about them (e.g., women are bad at math). The present research investigates whether being the target of a positive stereotype leads women to underperform on a math test because they fear confirming assumed negative perceptions of their group. In this study, female participants were randomly assigned to either the positive stereotype condition (i.e., “why women are generally more nurturing than men”) or the no positive stereotype condition (i.e., “why some men and women are generally more nurturing than others”). Participants then proceeded to take a math test. Results showed that women in the positive stereotype condition underperformed on the math test compared to women in the no positive stereotype condition. This study suggests that praise in the form of a positive stereotype may be counterproductive, resulting in negative consequences for people who are targets of a positive stereotype. Moreover, targets of a positive stereotype may perceive negative stereotypes as being implicitly imposed onto them. Therefore, positive stereotypes may lead women to not only underperform on a math test but also accept associated negative perceptions of their group.

Statistical learning is the process of identifying a language’s structure by tracking patterns of regularities within the language. Recent studies indicate that infants can use the statistical regularities of syllable patterns to find words in fluent speech, which enables them to associate meanings to words. We do not know, however, if statistical learning can also help adults learn words. In the present study, 40 adults ages 18-30 will participate in a segmentation phase in which they listen to 5 minutes of an artificial speech stream consisting of nonsense words. The artificial language will ensure that adults are being exposed to a language that is unfamiliar to them. To teach the labels, adults will be presented with novel objects matching each label. They will hear four words they heard previously in the segmentation phase and four new words. The method of teaching and testing labels will be the same as used with infants. However, the task for adults will be more complex because they will be presented with more labels. To test participants’ knowledge of the two types of labels, we will examine their ability to look at the correct object when they hear the specific label. Our expectations are that, similar to infants, the segmentation phase will help adults link the labels to the correct objects. Without the previous segmentation experience learning the labels is expected to be more difficult. This study will reveal how the learning processes of adults relate to the learning processes of infants.

The Ronald E. McNair Scholars Program’s goal is to introduce first-generation, low-income, under-represented group college students to effective strategies for succeeding in graduate programs. One way to explore program effectiveness is to ask the McNair graduates themselves. This interview study will explore McNair graduates understandings of issues they face in adjusting to graduate school and how McNair participation prepared them for addressing these issues. Typically McNair program evaluations emphasize the collection and analysis of quantitative data – e.g. academic performance and degree attainment; however, little qualitative research has been conducted on graduate’s perceptions of the impact of program participation on graduate school adjustment and success. Using Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital, along with Sociology-based ideas of role-as-resource and role mastery, this study will explore students’ perceptions of the McNair program’s effectiveness in regards to helping them understand the “graduate student” role and to use that role to succeed in graduate school. 

Is the College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP) successful in reaching its goal of supporting students through the completion of their first year at IHE (Institutions of Higher Education) schools? CAMP assists disadvantaged undergraduate students who are children of migrant/seasonal agricultural workers and who are usually migrant workers themselves. The program assists students by providing financial resources, tutors, personal academic advisors, and emotional support to students. Currently, CAMP measures its success by increasing the retention rates of its students and providing them with services that prepare them to enter their second year in good academic standing. Although these programs have been shown to have positive impacts on student retention rates, there is need for analysis of the extent of these successes and whether program methods could be improved to further increase graduation rates. This study examines, in depth, the current status of the program’s various factors ( i.e. funding, culture, academics, recruitting) that enhance and or deter students from continuing on to their second year and considers how improvements could be made. This study will be completed through literature reviews, policy analysis, and program evaluations of current CAMP programs. Ultimately this project aims to uncover the program’s strengths and weaknesses and to recommend at a grass roots practitioner level, as well as at the policy level; the expansion of financial resources, social capital and social support. This study will show that the successes of these types of programs are directly related with funding; the more resources CAMP obtains, the more effective it is as a whole. This research is important because the CAMP program serves as a model for future and current programs. Understanding the CAMP program can lead to creating more effective educational policies that cater to disadvantaged students.

 Amongst other struggles, providing health care suitable for its population's needs remains a major challenge for Nigeria as a nation today. To assess the health of the population and the use of health care services, Nigeria's National Population Commission carried out Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in 1990, 1999, 2003, and 2008. Knowing that several states in Nigeria have populations dominated by one of the three major ethnic groups, my project used DHS data to examine how state of residence influences health measures, controlling for all other relevant factors. I used the ordinary least squares - multiple regression method in order to separately analyze the degree of influence each independent and control variable has on determining the aggregate health measures of each state. The health measures I focused on include child malnutrition and diarrhea, female circumcision, and maternal health behavior. In the past, studies have consistently revealed that amongst the three nationally dominant ethnic groups, Hausa people suffer the worst health measures for children and mothers; however, mixed results exist for how well Yoruba and Igbo communities fare relative to each other. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between Yoruba and Igbo dominated states using data from Nigeria's most recent and largest nationally representative sample yet - DHS 2008. I hypothesized that Igbo-dominated states fare worse than Yoruba-dominated states, because the Biafran War mostly damaged infrastructure in "Igboland", and reports indicate that the Yoruba region stands more highly urbanized today, which suggests greater postwar fitness. I also hypothesized that as the number of minority ethnic groups a state hosts increases, the worse the state-level health measures will be, according to predictions from social disorganization theory. If my results support my hypotheses, then Nigeria's future health initiatives should consider health disparities along lines of ethnicity and ethnic diversity within a state.

The Community Action Research and Empowerment Project (CARE), launched in September of 2010, is a participatory action research project where elders and youth work together to assess the strengths and needs of the Vietnamese community in Seattle, and develop a long-term plan to address those needs and advance the community. Data from 16 focus groups, 85 interviews, and 316 surveys were collected. We learned that the Vietnamese community members have a broad range of concerns, such as youth and education, housing, jobs, health and social services. During Phase 2 (2011-2012), a strategic action plan will be created with extensive input from community members to address the issues identified—thereby creating a shared vision for the Vietnamese community.

My research examines fairness and equity in the distribution of three wastewater treatment types across seven counties in the Puget Sound region. I begin my analysis with a thorough exploration into the concepts of fairness and equity, within the context of a variety of disciplines. Drawing on this analysis, I then look into the costs of these different systems, making sure to take into account all applicable considerations, including implementation, maintenance, and repair costs. Specifically, I investigate the costs of combined-sewer systems, separated sewer systems, and onsite septic systems at the household scale. Lastly, I use Geographical Information Systems and spatial analysis to compare the costs of these systems to their spatial distribution through the subject counties, and to the household median income within their respective census tracts. This methodology allows me to uncover any inequities in the way that the costs of these treatment types are distributed, and address a specific instance of fairness within urban planning that has yet to be investigated.

With the changing demographics in Washington State and the large number of underrepresented youth in the foster care system it is vital to make sure these students graduate on time. These students face more challenges and barriers when it comes to education because of the racial disproportionality of underrepresented students in Washington State who attain a high school diploma. This research will look at the ten largest Latino serving school districts in Washington State to compare the on-time graduation, late graduation and non-returning dropout rates amongst high school students who are in the foster care system. It analyzes the categories used for dropping out in order to better understand the social differences high school students in foster care face, that cause the dropout rate for them to be higher when compared to their peers. It will also focus on the ways in which the school districts support or hinder foster care students and their families when it comes to students dropping out. The objective of this research is to look at the ten largest Latino serving populated school districts in Washington to investigate whether there is a disparity among the reasons given for dropping out, in comparison with their peers. I will look at literature reviews, governmental reports from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The research goal is to better understand why high school students in foster care are dropped out at higher rates in some districts and not in others and how districts are dealing with their specific needs to get them to graduate on time.

Income inequality in the United States is at its highest level in at least the last half century, and official measures of poverty have remained relatively stable prior to the 2008 financial crisis. Since that time, the percent of the population considered poor has steadily increased. Previous research has shown that both income inequality and poverty, individually, are related to incarceration rates. This paper presents results of an analysis of the relative effects of income inequality and poverty on incarceration rates. Using state-level data for the United States, I use multiple regression analysis to determine the degree to which each can account for states’ incarceration rates.

Individuals with significant barriers to achievement in our society, such as homelessness, unemployment, mental distress, and chemical dependency, often commit low-level, non-violent crimes and continually cycle through the criminal justice system. To reduce recidivism, Community Court programs have been established to reduce crime through a problem-solving and community-focused approach. Community Court was introduced in Seattle in 2005 to specifically target these chronic offenders. My research focuses on Seattle Community Court defendants who have been charged with committing a misdemeanor theft offense. Using completed assessment forms made available through Probation Services in the Municipal Court of Seattle; I will examine the defendants’ current situational context (specifically homelessness and chemical dependency), along with other variables like age, race, gender, literacy, and mental health, to gain a better understanding as to why defendants commit a non-violent misdemeanor theft offense. Furthermore, by using Seattle police reports I will examine the type and monetary value of item stolen; this analysis will lead me towards more conclusive determinants which may explain the defendants' misdemeanor theft charge and/or disparities amongst those examined. I hypothesize that defendants who are homeless will steal an item with higher monetary value including clothing and/or appliances. Additionally, I expect that defendants who are chemically dependant are likely to steal an item with less monetary value like: food, beverage, and/or alcoholic related. If my hypotheses are in fact incorrect, I will have learned that the chronic offenders entering Seattle Community Court are multifaceted and the above characteristics do not necessarily account for why these offenders have committed a non-violent theft.

This paper explores why state governments choose to expand Medicaid family planning provisions. It will compare the demographics, rates of family planning consequences, and state budget of the 28 states expanding Medicaid against the 22 states who are not. Family planning Medicaid has documented savings, and for nearly every $1 invested, there is a savings of approximately $4.02. It has also been shown to improve women’s life chances, provide access to healthcare for the poor, and to prevent unintended pregnancies. Yet, only 28 states have chosen to expand Family planning Medicaid at this point in time. What differentiates the states that invest in Medicaid from those who do not? By using data from the Guttmacher Institute along with data from the Census, I will conduct a macro-level analysis of these states. Moral beliefs, religiosity, and level of education are likely to influence this decision more than the cost savings provided by Medicaid. By better understanding the logic behind Medicaid investment in state government, the decision making process to provide this essential service to the poor can be demystified. This analysis will cast light on the reasons states choose not to invest in Medicaid, as the cost savings and health benefits of the program can be great assets to any state.

This study investigates the impact of success or failure of a university’s marquee sports programs on student academic success. I analyzed data from schools in four National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I athletic conferences each having both of the money-generating sports programs, football and men's basketball. I am interested in determining whether the success or failure of a school’s teams affects student performance, both among student athletes and among the general student body. Anecdotal evidence and some prior studies indicate that student performance can suffer when a school team does well, but this effect is short-term. This study looks at short-term as well as more long-term measures of academic success as measured by overall graduation rates for undergraduates and graduation measures used by the NCAA and the US federal government, to track student athlete academic success. I also consider associations with other covariates such as school size (number of enrolled undergraduate students), school location, public vs. private institutions, racial make-up of the school and regional location, on the afore mentioned relationships. I expect these relationships to be different for small schools than for large schools. My hypothesis is that student-athletes as a group have higher graduation rates than the general student population and in larger schools student-athletes are less affected by athletic results than the general student body.

In the 1960 United States Census, the federal government first gave official recognition to the Pacific Islander community by adding "Hawaiian or Part Hawaiian" to the options available under the category of "American Indian."  Between 1970 and 1990, however, the Census Bureau grouped Pacific Islanders in the category "Asian Americans," and statistically analyzed only this aggregate category.  In the 2000 census the Census Bureau constructed the category "Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander," thereby recognizing the possible separate status of non-Hawaiian Pacific Islanders.  Official definitions of racial and ethnic groups are important because the federal government uses them to allocate resources to various state and local governmental units.  For example, schools in the United States categorize and analyze the academic performance and needs of students by using the racial categories as defined by the U.S. Census.  Many Washington state school districts, however, still group Asian American students and Pacific Islander students into an aggregate category when assessing academic performance and identifying students who perform below expectations and are in need of academic assistance.  Using data from the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, I examine the graduation rates and standardized test scores of Asian American students and Pacific Islander students in the 17 school districts in the Seattle and Tacoma metropolis that contain the largest number of Pacific Islander students in the state. My objective is to gain a better understanding of the social-structural factors that produce variation in outcomes among the officially defined subgroups of students.

Disparities between males and females is problematic in India and this is apparent in the countries’ gender composition. India’s population has increased exponentially over the past century, but during that time India’s sex ratio (defined as the number of females divided by the number of males) has been abnormally low. The natural sex ratio at birth is approximately .95, but during the last century India’s sex ratio has dropped from .96 to .91. Scholars suggest that the abnormal sex ratios are due to social and cultural factors. My research utilizes data from 2001 and 2011 Indian Censuses to examine the relationship between the sex ratios of young children (ages 0 – 6) in the 35 states of India and social/cultural factors in those states, such as female literacy rates, female labor force participation and religious practices that preference males. My data runs statistical analyses and I hope to show a positive relationship between the sex ratios and the social factors. My study shows the extent to which cultural and social conditions that lead to male preference in India may have produced the low sex ratios observed during the past century. This disparity is important to understand because it is a human rights issue and I hope my research can help us better understand the cultural and social aspects in order to obtain gender equality in India.

Over the past fifteen years Washington State Juvenile Justice department has been developing an evidence-based rehabilitative system to reduce crime among adolescents cost effectively. One way legislators are encouraging this is through state funding grants. Up until 2010 funding from the state was distributed in the form of a categorical grant, which allocate funds to the 33 juvenile justice courts of Washington based on county level variables. In conjunction with the move towards research oriented methods for applying justice, the Department of Social and Human Services (DSHS) formed the Models for Change initiative to find ways to ensure minority youth received the same treatment and benefits from the rehabilitative programs as whites. Although these two developments are intended to provide equality to all, their implementation is so new that DSHS has yet to fully develop quality assurance tests to assess whether the grants are working as intended. My research examines how state funding affects the sentencing dispositions of minorities and whites across counties. Sixty-eight percent of the categorical grant funding is based on the youth population, so counties in more rural regions typically receive less money from the grant. Using data from the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA) and the Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement data book, I measure the extent to which variation between rural and urban county funding affects the proportion of minorities and whites assigned to confinement. Keeping in mind the goals of the Models for Change initiative, I examine the ways in which urban and rural counties differ in their assignments of rehabilitation, with the hope of gaining further insight into how legislators deal with discrimination in contemporary legal processes.