Smokeless tobacco use, 90% of which occurs among males, typically begins in adolescence and significantly ceases by the end of young adulthood. This study tested the hypothesis that psychological factors consistent with the Theory of Triadic Influence (TTI) longitudinally predict male SLT acquisition and cessation. This is the first known study to test these predictions. TTI psychological risk factors (parental noncompliance, friend compliance, rebelliousness, and thrill-seeking) were assessed in a cohort of Washington State males participating in a 40 school district tobacco study. To predict acquisition of daily use, never SLT users had their risk factors assessed at age 12. Their SLT use was assessed at age 18 (N = 2,468; 94.8% 5-year retention). To predict cessation, all daily SLT users had their risk factors assessed at age 18. Their SLT cessation status was assessed at ages 20 and 28 (N = 182; 86.9% 10-year retention). All models were tested with logistic regressions adjusting for experimental condition, team sport participation, parental education, and clustering among participants in the same school district. Scoring high on the following psychological factors at age 12 increased the odds of daily SLT use at age 18: 156% increased odds for friend compliance (OR = 2.56; p <.001), 116% for rebelliousness (OR = 2.16; p <.001), and 133% for thrill seeking (OR = 2.33; p <.001). Parent noncompliance was not a significant predictor (p =.33) of SLT acquisition. None of the psychological factors at age 18 predicted SLT cessation at ages 20 or 28 (p value range: .13 to .94). This study provides the first evidence that friend compliance, rebelliousness, and thrill-seeking strongly predict SLT acquisition among males. However, there was no evidence that the psychological factors predicted SLT cessation. Targeting these psychological predictors early may help prevent SLT use among males.

Neural networks are often employed to model the brain. One such model developed by Numenta’s research group is the hierarchical temporal memory (HTM) model. A comparison of the HTM model and more conventional neural networks such as the network architectures available in the Stuttgart Neural Network Simulator (SNNS) is missing from the literature. This study aims to report on the performance on machine learning problems of HTM neural networks as compared to the performance of other common network architectures. The HTM neural network will either be built on the JAVA platform using the descriptions in Numenta’s publications or be used as provided by Numenta for public use. The SNNS network architectures will be used as provided by the University of Stuttgart. Possible learning problems considered will include: motion detection, character recognition, recognition and tracking of humanoid forms, object identification, and general pattern recognition. Possible SNNS network architectures include: backpropagation through time (for recurrent networks), quickprop through time (for recurrent networks), self-organizing maps (Kohonen maps), TDNN (time-delay networks) with backpropagation, Elman networks and extended hierarchical Elman networks. Evaluation of a network’s performance on each problem will be based on accuracy of identification, and time required for computation, while holding learning resources constant (same time exposure and same number of examples during learning stage). A qualitative comparison of the similarities of the learning problems to cortical learning algorithms and brain architectures may be attempted depending on time constraints. These results will be useful for evaluating both the usefulness of HTM neural networks and their connection to the cortical learning algorithm.

 Craniofacial Microsomia (CFM) is a congenital condition that occurs in approximately 1:5,600 lives births and involves malformations that result in underdevelopment of one or both sides of the face, usually affecting the ear and jaw. It has been previously thought that in patients with unilateral CFM, the other half of the face remains unaffected. Recent studies suggest that the ‘unaffected side’ of the face may be smaller when compared to individuals without craniofacial conditions. This is an expansion of our previous pilot study where we found some support for this claim. We aim to quantify the facial differences clinically observed in the ‘unaffected’ side of the face in a larger sample size of 75 children with CFM compared with 75 children without craniofacial conditions using anthropometric measurements on 3D surface images obtained with the 3dMD® camera system. The outcome variables are coordinates and interlandmark distances using facial landmarks obtained on 3D images from individuals with CFM and controls. We compare distributions (mean and standard deviations) and proportions of the anthropometric measurements between children with CFM and controls using a two-sided Student’s t-test with unequal variance. Ultimately we hope this information will help us to better understand the etiology of this condition and treat children with CFM. We plan to integrate the results of this study into future assessments of patients with CFM to ensure they are receiving the highest quality of care and ensure that interventions are improving patients’ quality of life.

Methylobacterium extorquens AM1 is a methylotrophic bacteria ubiquitous in the environment and in particular on the undersides of leaves. This organism is able to metabolize both single carbon compounds like methanol and multi-carbon compounds such as succinate and pyruvate. M. extorquens has been studied for decades because of its potential for not only creating value added compounds from methanol, but important regulatory systems including the regulatory pathway of methanol metabolism, which has yet to be fully elaborated. Our laboratory focuses on single carbon compound metabolism and the regulation of the pathways required for growth. The first step in methylotrophic growth is the oxidation of methanol via methanol dehydrogenase encoded by the mxaFI genes. Promoter fusion data suggests a complex regulatory system involving two two-component systems MxbDM and MxcQE, two homologues of the main methanol dehydrogenase XoxF12, and an unknown transcriptional repressor. In order to elucidate this process, the direct binding of a transcriptional regulator to the mxaF promoter region must be demonstrated. Unfortunately all putative regulators have historically failed to show activity in vitro. In order to isolate direct regulators, whole cell extract will be washed over an abundance of the mxa promoter region that is bound to magnetic beads. Then using a magnet, the promoter region can be removed along with proteins that have bound from the cell extract, any non-specific binding proteins can be washed off using a low salt buffer, and specific binding proteins removed using a high salt buffer. The elutions containing the proteins of interest can be run out on an SDS PAGE gel, and the unique bands of interest excised and sent for mass spectrometry analysis for identification. Our work will define transcriptional regulators of the mxa operand, determining which specific proteins are binding the promoter region of that operand.

A vast quantity of water is moving in the atmosphere under the direct influence of solar energy. Therefore, it is important to understand the energy balance to characterize the behavior of the water cycle of a particular region. Water gets back from ocean and land masses to the atmosphere through the process of evaporation and evapotranspiration (ET). Evapotranspiration is an important phenomenon in the water cycle for the estimation and evaluation of the available water resources. If we understand how ET is changing over space and time, then we can more accurately calculate the crop water requirement (CWR) at a high resolution for that region. This can help farmers in managing water resources very efficiently. Current research has difficulty in projecting how ET is going to change over different locations in the future. Therefore, through this research we are trying to understand the partition of the energy balance components and quantify them to help the water management in southern Idaho. To support this research, we will use the data from both Land Surface Hydrology Model and field observations and present the trends in surface energy balance components, including net radiation, latent (ET), sensible and ground heat fluxes. 

People with severe visual impairments cannot drive, so they often rely on public transit. The usability of the public transit system is, therefore, of crucial importance to blind people. One major challenge blind people experience when using public transportation is finding the exact location of bus stops. We have developed StopFinder, a system that uses crowdsourcing to provide information about non-visual landmarks around bus stops to enable blind people to find them more easily when navigating with a cane or a guide dog. It is developed in iPhone, and blind people can use our system using the access technology called VoiceOver, the built-in feature of iPhone that enables them to hear the information in the screen and navigate screen through simple hand gestures like single or double finger flicks, taps etc. The crowdsourced information includes which street/avenue has the bus stop, which direction to walk to reach the bus stop once you arrive at the intersection and what to expect once you arrive at the bus stop like the presence of shelters, garbage cans, benches etc. Since we are using crowsourcing for getting information, we provide an option to rate the entry. In addition to accessing and rating information about a bus stop, blind people can also contribute information through a non-graphical interface. The interface consists of mostly multiple-choice questions that are convenient to fill in a short time while waiting for a bus using VoiceOver. Since one of our primary foci has been the ease of using Stopfinder, we conducted interviews with blind people that informed the design of the application.

Neutrinos and antineutrinos are elementary particles with no electric charge and very small masses. From neutrino oscillation experiments we know their mass differences but not their absolute scale. Additionally, it is unknown whether neutrinos are their own antiparticles. These are two of several significant questions in neutrino physics and are important for furthering our fundamental understanding of the universe as we extend the Standard Model of particle physics. These questions can be probed by a search for the rare hypothetical radioactive decay known as neutrinoless double beta decay. The Majorana Demonstrator experiment will look for neutrinoless double beta decay in ⁷⁶Ge. Currently, the Majorana Demonstrator is in the development stage, and involves the collaboration of several universities and national laboratories. My research characterizes electrical crosstalk between nearby readout channels for this experiment. As neutrinoless double beta decay is hypothesized to such a rare process, a thorough understanding of the electrical crosstalk is necessary to adequately interpret the measured signals.

Washington State is home to unique prairie ecosystems that have been invaded and degraded over the last several decades. A habitat restoration study is underway at 4 research sites in Western Washington. Areas at each site were prepared with solarization, burning, or herbicide, and plots were seeded with a diverse mixture of native species following site preparation. I am researching the effect of these treatments on the physiological profile of soil microbial communities and on available nitrogen (N) mineralization. Soil samples were collected from 5 locations at each site: the site preparation treatments, an unseeded herbicide area, and an untreated area. The samples were either inoculated into a Biolog EcoPlateTM containing 31 carbon sources and 3 water well controls, or used to extract a KCl solution for N mineralization amounts. The wells of the EcoPlatesTM contain tetrazolium, which changes color in response to microbial activity. The color development was recorded when plates were first inoculated using a micro-plate reader at a wavelength of 590nm, and were then incubated for 24 hours. Readings were then taken every 12 hours for 96 hours. The normalized data are analyzed using PCA and PERMANOVA.N Mineralization rates are obtained by subtracting the results of time 0 from time 1. PVC tubes were inserted into the 5 treatment plots on day 1 and removed to collect samples for mineralization. To obtain the second sample PVC tubes were left in the 5 treatments plots and collected after 40 days. Samples were mixed with a 2M KCl solution to extract NO3 and NH4 amounts. The resulting amounts of NO3 and NO4 from day 1 will be subtracted from day 40 to obtain mineralization rates. This research is important to the larger restoration project because it is examining how strongly the restoration treatments affect the soil microbial community.

Plants respond with a sink stimulation of photosynthesis when colonized by bacterial and fungal mutualists, which compensates for costs of carbohydrate allocation to the microbes. Problems may arise when light is limited and plants cannot increase photosynthesis. We hypothesize that under such conditions the costs for maintaining the mutualism outweigh the benefits, which ultimately turns the beneficial microbes into parasites exploiting resources and reducing host fitness. We study these plant-microbe interactions under different light availabilities using lima bean plants, rhizobia (nitrogen-fixing bacteria), and mycorrhizal fungi. In our study, we apply two levels of light (full light and light intensity reduced by 50%) and four levels of microbial inoculation (sterile soil, rhizobia, mycorrhiza, and rhizobia x mycorrhiza). Fitness-relevant plant parameters are measured including plant vegetative growth as well as flower and seed production. Our study will provide first insights into potential shifts in functional interactions between plants and plant-associated microbes under light limitation.

The human body is roughly two-thirds water, much of which interacts with intracellular hydrophilic surfaces, materials that exhibit water-attracting properties. Near any hydrophilic surface such as biological tissue, a zone of water extending a few hundred micrometers from the surface called the “exclusion zone (EZ)” exhibits exclusive and stunning properties far different from those in normal, bulk water. For instance, EZ water does not exist as a solid, liquid, or gas but instead forms a unique, ordered liquid crystalline state that is solute-free, highly organized, and electrically polarized. When EZs are exposed to light, their sizes increase as they absorb and store energy. Cells could utilize this potential energy through growth or other cellular activities. However, it is hypothesized that EZs absorb not only light energy, but also other energy sources such as acoustic energy. To measure the effects of sound on EZs, sheets of hydrated Nafion, a hydrophilic polymer that generates EZs, were submerged in water and exposed to various frequencies and intensities of audible sound produced from an underwater speaker. Microspheres, small spherical particles made from synthetic material, were used to visualize the EZs. Because EZs exclude solutes, the EZs were represented by the areas void of microspheres. During and after exposure to sound, the EZ sizes were monitored over time. Recent results showed that during exposure to multiple audible frequencies (1-8 kHz), the sizes of the EZs decreased transiently. After the sound was removed, in some cases, the size recovered to its original value. These results may suggest enormous biological implications. Everyday sounds produced in our environment could have a large impact on cellular behavior.

The vestibular system, a complex system involving the inner ear, is responsible for maintaining eye stability and posture during head movements.  Rotational and linear accelerations of the head are sensed by the end organs of the vestibular labyrinth, and are used to initiate and modulate reflexes.  Dysfunction of the vestibular system can produce symptoms ranging from mild dizziness to debilitating attacks of vertigo.  Our group has developed a vestibular prosthesis to replace vestibular function through the use of electrical stimulation. The device has three electrodes which are surgically implanted into the three semicircular canals of vestibular labyrinth to allow for direct electrical stimulation of the end organ. Our ultimate goal is to artificially restore vestibular function in patients, in part to accurately control eye movements.  To do this, we need to understand the relationship between eye position and eye movements during stimulation with the prosthesis. Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that transient eye velocities elicited by short stimulation are linearly related to the initial position of the eye in the orbit.  We need to understand if during prolonged stimulation eye position also has a significant effect on eye velocity. In this study, we characterize the effects of eye position on the maintained velocities elicited by a long stimulus train. These observations will allow us to more accurately control eye movements to stabilize the eye with electrical stimulation of varying durations, or at different frequencies of head rotation. We have trained one rhesus monkey to track a moving visual target.  A long duration stimulus was administered to each of the three semicircular canals in that animal.  All visual stimuli were removed during the stimulations.  Preliminary results suggest that there is a relationship between eye position and eye velocity elicited by long duration stimuli.

Online education is an effective and efficient electronic source for students to gain knowledge. Online education modules allow educators to bridge the gap between theory and practice for students. The modules created during this project tackle several topics in Materials Science & Engineering such as ceramics, hardness of materials, the use of light optical microscopy, corrosion and more. They are designed to encourage students to think critically, form questions and go through the scientific method in order to solve complex problems. They are formatted to combine a variety of learning styles by combining a power point lecture, assigning reading materials and having the hands on experience via demonstration or experimentation. This benefits students immediately in that they will learn how to apply the knowledge in education, research and industry. The educational modules are evaluated several times in order to perfect the lesson plan. In having the modules evaluated by current educators and individuals in industry the modules can be altered and adjusted in order to focus on specific key points. A few of these modules are completed and ready to use in a classroom setting specifically tailored to advanced high school, technical schools, community colleges and four year educational institutions.

Historically, if an individual entered the U.S. without authorization it was not considered a criminal offense. Today the term “illegal immigrant” is commonplace; with many simply assuming this is how it has always been. "Crimmigration”refers to the phenomenon of increasing overlap between criminal and immigration law, procedures, and enforcement mechanisms.Using newspaper articles, this research identifies the percentage share of crimmigration discussion in several major news outlets as a proxy for the climate of public opinion.This study analyzes the changing rhetoric of immigration since WWII. Through an investigation of newspaper articles, this research examines whether economic downturns have contributed to the criminalization of immigration debates in the public sphere. I expect to find that economic factors are important predictors of the prevalance of crimmigration-related articles, after controlling for the other explanations suggested by past research, such as changes in immigration law.

For an animal whose brain only contains about 100,000 neurons, the fruit fly is capable of striking behavioral complexity. The goal of our work is to identify neuronal circuits that process sensory cues and transform them into changes in motor activities. Our work relies on the Gal4-UAS (Upstream Activation Sequence) system, a commonly used genetic tool that allows us to label and manipulate small subsets of neurons. The system takes advantage of different enhancer elements to drive expression of the Gal4 transcription factor in various tissues. When Gal4 flies are bred with UAS flies that contain GFP (green fluorescent protein) or RFP (red fluorescent protein), the Gal4 will bind to the UAS, and enable the production of GFP or RFP. This allows the desired cells to fluoresce, which can be tracked using a microscope. With this, we can identify Gal4 lines with interesting neuronal expression patterns and test the function of these neurons in Drosophila. Expressing the ion channel UAS-TrpA1, for example, activates neurons when the temperature is shifted from 22 °C to 27 °C. I crossed different Gal4 drivers to UAS-TrpA1. After performing a temperature shift on the progeny, I observed that various Gal4 flies became twitchy while others collapsed. These behaviors were reversible when the temperature shift ended. Fluorescing the Gal4 lines that allow for this behavior would allow insight as to the activated neurons in the brain and thoracic ganglia. The confocal images would allow us to see the neuronal expression. Through this model organism we can hope to comprehend and apply the knowledge in understanding complex systems, for example, what neurons coordinate behaviors such as navigation and locomotion.

Most American universities provide academic support for multilingual students. These supports tend to fall into the realms of one-on-one tutoring, study groups, or specialized classes. Less common, however, are institutionally provided social supports – that is, support settings not focused on classroom specific education or academic learning, but instead provide an environment where students can develop a sense of community, form relationships with their peers, and ultimately gain a better understanding of U.S. culture. To assess the impact that institutional social supports can provide, we will conduct a case study of two students participating in Thursday English Afternoons (T.E.A. Time) at the Boise State University Writing Center while taking regular college courses during the summer intersession. We will consider the role that T.E.A. Time fills among students’ other social and academic activities, whether it fills a need that is otherwise absent, and we will assess it for positive impacts on students’ academic work. To conduct this case study, two participants will fill out pre and post surveys, and they will be interviewed three times over the course of this study. The surveys will assess students’ perceptions on the T.E.A. Time program, and how it relates to their lives in the United States. The interviews will focus on students’ lives, both in the classroom and in social situations outside of T.E.A. Time, and will be analyzed to determine common themes that suggest social or academic needs that are not otherwise being met. We hypothesize that this study will show participants self-reporting a significant increase in confidence with spoken English and will show strong support for the T.E.A. Time program among participants. Additionally, we will explore possible links among T.E.A. Time, students’ social lives, and their academic performance.

Emotion is a human universal but interpretation of facial expressions and the prescribed meaning may differ across cultures. In Faces and Feelings we attempt to examine this cultural variation by testing East Asian and European American participants’ responses to various stories presented with photos of facial expressions. Recent research has indicated that European Americans judge faces primarily using features of the face, whereas East Asian participants judge faces inferring from the person’s social situation. Expanding on this, we predict different factors such as interdependence and dialectical thinking will influence interpretation of facial expressions cross-culturally. Participants are asked to complete a computer-based experiment consisting of essay responses, multiple choice questions and demographic information. We will then perform qualitative analyses on the data collected. We expect our results from this ongoing study to yield similar results to the earlier pilot studies which supported the hypotheses. While people in every culture express their feeling on their faces, there may be differences in what those expressions communicate and in how they reflect what a person is feeling. Knowledge of these differences may help diverse cultures understand and relate to each other in positive and more productive ways.

When water is placed in contact with a hydrophilic surface and light, a zone clear of all solutes measuring several micrometers long forms at the area of contact. The water in this exclusion zone (EZ) differs from bulk water in that EZ water is negatively charged, more viscous, and highly stabilized with the water molecules being further aligned and constrained. The energy required to generate this zone comes from ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths of light, and while the specific mechanism for their production is unknown, it is hypothesized that light increases hydrogen bonding from the hydrophilic surface into the water, producing the EZ. Metals also contain the necessary properties for generating EZs, and have the potential of producing exclusion zones on a large scale. Current results show that EZs form only when the interface between copper and water is exposed to sunlight, suggesting that exposure to light specifically at the interface might be responsible for producing a photoelectric effect involved with separating the interfacial water into EZ water. Repetitions will be needed to confirm the trend that sunlight light is responsible for producing EZs along copper. A positive result will have significant influence on developing water filtration technologies using just sunlight and copper by harvesting the pure EZ water, fit for drinking. The potential also exists to engineer solar panels using copper and sunlight, and harvesting the stored negative charge in the EZ as a source of energy.

As young people between the ages of 16 and 24 become more engaged in their communities, they begin to seek out ways to contribute to volunteer activities. As this occurs, young people often need to track their service efforts, and organizations need to regularly reach out to volunteers and validate their participation. Despite advancements in web technology, paper logs that are prone to becoming unorganized or misplaced are still used by people and organizations as the primary method for keeping track of volunteering records. Such was the case for our nonprofit client, the University of Washington Foundation. To improve this situation, we first conducted a literature review on attitudes and behavior around volunteering. We then designed an online survey that was filled out by 64 qualifying respondents, and conducted 20 in-person interviews with students from local Seattle Public Schools and the University of Washington. Results suggested that young people consider (1) organization, (2) history tracking, and (3) event coordination as important qualities in helping to better manage their volunteering efforts. Building on those findings, we sought to create a web application called vTracker that allows volunteers to centralize their records in an online database for better safekeeping, verification, and retrieval. vTracker’s design and implementation process included the creation of wireframe diagrams, user interface design specifications, and a functional prototype. According to feedback from students and our client organization that tested our prototype, vTracker provides a convenient way for volunteers to set personal service goals and have their volunteer hours validated by participating organizations; similarly, organizations can share volunteer opportunities, confirm volunteer profile records, and recommend the work of their volunteers. Eventually, the Student Philanthropy Education Program of the University of Washington Foundation will adopt the web application as an active record-keeping tool because vTracker effectively streamlines their volunteer management process.

Why are urban forests not replacing themselves?  For example, recent surveys demonstrate that adult trees are dying faster than new saplings are recruiting in Seattle (Washington), implying that the health of local coniferous forests is in decline.  Extensive resources are spent planting trees to combat this problem, but the underlying causes of this "lost generation" of trees remains unknown.  We investigate factors limiting seedling establishment of native conifers (Thuja plicata, Tsuga heterophylla) in Seattle, and use results to suggest strategies resource managers can use to address the "lost generation" problem.  We examine the effect of removing non-native English Ivy (Hedera helix) and adding mulch to understand what is limiting conifer regeneration, and to explore possible management techniques for improving growth and survival of transplanted seedlings.  We measured survival, general health (visually assessed), and height as response variables to the two treatments.  As of yet, no studies have empirically tested both of these factors.  We observed the highest transplant survival rates in areas where mulch was added, for both focal species.  Surviving transplants in the mulch treatment were also healthier than the transplants with no mulch added.  Ivy presence did not affect health or survival of either species, but it did affect growth of Tsuga heterophylla.  Treatments affected growth of the two species differently.  Growth of Thuja plicata was not affected by either treatment.  For Tsuga heterophylla, however, growth was highest in the ivy-removed treatment, but was not significantly affected by the presence of mulch.  Our results suggest that seedling survival is limited by a lack of mulch and that competition with invasive understory plants may limit growth for some species.  Our recommendations for park management are therefore that restoration transplants should be paired with mulch addition, as well as Hedera helix removal for Tsuga heterophylla, to maximize survival and growth.

Diabetes is an escalating health issue that can lead to a multitude of health problems, including heart disease, blindness and death. In 2011, the Center for Disease Control reported that diabetes afflicts 25.8 million Americans, is the seventh leading cause of death, and that it incurs an annual cost of $174 billion. Type II Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) accounts for 90-95% of adult diabetes, for which there is no definitive cure. Studies show that 84% of patients undergoing Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass (RYGB) experience near immediate, weight-independent remission of T2DM, and virtually all achieve improved glycemic control. The exact mechanism of remission is a quandary, however the hypothesis is that RYGB improves glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity through differential expression of gastrointestinal peptides. To explore the molecular mechanisms of this, 44 Ossabaw pigs are obtained and raised on a high fat diet that promotes weight gain and insulin resistance. Pigs are randomized to undergo one of 5 operations: RYGB (n=8), RYGB with Vagotomy (n=8), Gastrojejunostomy (n=8), Gastrojejunostomy with Duodenal Exclusion (n=8), or sham (n=4). Intravenous glucose tolerance tests (IVGTT) and meal tolerance tests (MTT) are performed once before the surgery, then again at 30 and 60 days after the surgery. Gastrointestinal tissue samples are collected during surgery and at necropsy on day 60. Samples are taken from the following sites: the stomach, proximal and distal duodenum, proximal and distal jejunum, proximal and distal ileum, and the pancreas. IVGTT and MTT blood samples will be used to determine the physiologic response by analyzing glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY, GIP, and ghrelin levels. GI and pancreatic tissue samples will undergo histopathological and mRNA analysis to provide insight into the differential expression of peptides at various locations. The conclusions of this study will help determine the mechanism of glycemic improvement and the cause of T2DM remission.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the use of electromagnetic induction to generate an electrical current beneath a conductive coil, has proven to be a non-invasive technique that can be applied to cortical areas in the brain to produce evoked action potentials. The behavioral effects of TMS are subject to the frequency, duration, and intensity of the magnetic stimulus being applied, and either long-term potentiation or long-term depression of neurons can be produced. Low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) employs the use of repeated stimulation at 1 Hz, and has been shown to cause a short-term depression of cells. A newly developed protocol, continuous theta-burst stimulation (cTBS), applies three pulses (50Hz) in bursts of triplets, and has been reported to produce stronger long-term depressive effects than low-frequency rTMS. While the effects of both low-frequency rTMS and cTBS have been extensively studied in regards to their effect on motor cortex function, few analyses have been conducted on their effect on language. In the current experiment, we compare the effects of cTBS and low-frequency rTMS on two tests of language comprehension abilities including a sentence comprehension task and a naming task. If language processing can be modified using TMS, one would predict that the response times for the tests of language comprehension would increase, with greater response time increases following cTBS than following low-frequency rTMS. Initial results from this experiment show that pre-post TMS response times for a sentence-comprehension task after low-frequency rTMS is applied to their left hemisphere is decreased, but is increased after cTBS is administered. Opposite results are produced when applied to the right hemisphere, with rTMS increasing response time, and cTBS decreasing it, respectively. Although data collection is still under way, our goal is to determine whether rTMS and cTBS produce significantly different effects on sentence reading and word naming paradigms.

Plants sense and respond to changes in their environment. For example, elongation of the embryonic stem ensures seedlings reach light after they germinate. This critical stage in a plant’s life is highly regulated by hormones, including gibberellic acid (GA) and brassinosteroids (BRs). Using the model system Arabidopsis thaliana, we discovered GA and BRs interact to control stem elongation during early development. We found that treating seedlings with both hormones resulted in a synergistic growth response during some phases of development but not others. We are exploring the genetic basis of this response using seedlings mutant in different aspects of their GA and BR pathways. For example, DWF4ox seedlings over-express a gene that encodes a BR biosynthetic enzyme. These seedlings make more BRs and have an enhanced growth response. DELLAs (RGA and GAI) repress growth and are degraded by GA. Seedlings that have reduced DELLA (rga gai) function also have enhanced growth. We are testing the growth responses of the DWF4ox rga gai triple mutant looking at hypocotyl elongation rates. By using these and other mutants that have compromised GA and BR pathways we hope to better understand the molecular mechanism of the interaction between these two hormones.

This research focuses on the reproduction and adaptation of Khmer (Cambodian) classical dance and its role in the maintenance and transmission of culture in the Cambodian community of Long Beach, California. The term “reproduction” is used because this cultural art form has been modified and influenced by a wide range of events in Khmer history, including the period when the Khmer Rouge, a communist group, seized control of Cambodia. The genocide of the Khmer Rouge resulted in the death of nearly two million Cambodians, including 90 percent of Khmer classical dancers. The life threatening atmosphere in Cambodia, as well as the cultural suppression experienced, led to the mass displacement of Cambodians who sought refuge in Long Beach, California. Upon their arrival in Long Beach, Cambodians began to reestablish their cultural practices, including Khmer classical dance, which had been prohibited during the Khmer Rouge period. The purpose of this research is to observe Khmer classical dance and the success of its reproduction and transmission in Long Beach. This research is based on data collected from participant-observation and personal interviews at Khmer Arts Academy (a non-profit dance studio), and observations at the Cambodian Art and Culture Exhibition, held November 2011. After studying Khmer classical dance in Long Beach, I have developed conclusions with regard to the significance and need for dance in the Cambodian community. My data suggests that performing Khmer classical dance at cultural events, celebrations, and festivals allows Cambodians to ensure the transmission and maintenance of their culture, and illustrates their success in sustaining and reclaiming their cultural identity.

The problem of real-time gesture from videos is explored, using techniques of dimension reduction to approach this by using methods analogous to those developed for detecting objects in images and voices in sound data. A variety of innovative pre-processing techniques significantly downsize the total video data. This makes the use of the relatively computationally expensive Higher-Order Singular Value Decomposition (HOSVD) for the classification process feasible. The HOSVD transforms the data into a mathematical space where the classification process becomes much simpler. Once the input video of a gesture is transformed, it is tested against a training set that was created a priori and specially indexed to optimize the search. This process is a refined extension of the ‘eigenfaces’ technique developed for face recognition. The performance is compared to other contemporary methods and its feasibility for larger gesture databases discussed. It is our pre-processing which makes SVD feature selection possible and makes our method robust to variations in translation, rotation, and scale of the gesture in the video. The primary difficulties with scale include both temporal and spatial variations, specifically the rate of the gesture over the video length and the size of the hands performing the gesture. It is shown that our pre-processing steps sufficiently handle the aforementioned challenges except for the variations in time. Comparisons are made between various methods and a balance between computational load and accuracy is discussed. Minimizing the computations is essential for real-time recognition and we intend to release our core code to be incorporated into other computer vision projects.

The concept of "inclusion" is a class placement method for children who have special needs; this involves integration into a classroom with traditional student group populations. Previous research states to the extent possible, and deemed appropriate, students with special needs have been known to benefit simply by being surrounded in a learning environment with diverse peers. While the focus is usually on the particular child(ren) with special needs, research mainly analyzes cognitive development. There may be various positive impacts placed upon the other students on social and emotional levels of development. This literature review examines whether classroom inclusion enhances a typically developing student's sense of empathy, acceptance, and equity for non-traditional student (including students with special needs) population groups among the developing traditional four year old students. This research project anticipates that there will be "enriched" development and a higher sense of empathy, acceptance and equity for the general population groups. These inquiries will be addressed through a literature review to synthesize what we currently understand about the effect of inclusion on typically developing children. The review will investigate work related to empirical studies on preschoolers' experiences in inclusive classrooms. Additional investigation will include foundational perspectives as presented by leading scholars and organizations in the field of early childhood special education. Based upon future findings, the examination of further research of behavioral patterns amongst both populations will be implicated.

Cognitive theorists argue that mental states, including disorders, are generated and maintained by personal, subjective beliefs, and that events can only be appropriately labeled by the individual experiencing them. Additionally, pervasive negative thoughts are a part of both depression and anxiety. Whereas with depression a person is likely to believe they are incompetent, or that life is hopeless, with anxiety a person is likely to have negative thoughts about what might happen or about threats in the future. Additionally, high levels of self-hate are associated with bulimia and high levels of self-control are associated with anorexia. Current research indicates a connection between depression, anxiety, and self-talk (ST). However, studies have yet to examine whether ST in men suffering from depression, anxiety, or disordered eating (DE) differs from that of women. The purpose of this study is to explore potential gender differences in ST (as measured by the automatic thoughts questionnaire-revised and the anxious self-statements questionnaire) with student’s scores on the Beck Depression Inventory, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Eating Disorders Inventory. These differences, if found, may help to explain the disparity between the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and DE between genders. Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with depression or anxiety and ten times as likely to be diagnosed with an eating disorder. We hypothesize that there will be differences in ST between men and women, and that these differences in ST will mediate the relation between gender and depression, anxiety, and disordered eating.

Decision making and risk factors such as media, peers/friends, and family, represent the two main areas that researchers have examined in an effort to understand the cause of disordered eating. Research on decision making has identified a strong tendency toward self-gratifying or disadvantageous decision making among disordered eating populations. Furthermore, persons with disordered eating demonstrate sensitivity towards risk factors as a source for self-perception which in turn plays a large role in binge eating symptomology. However, research on the interaction of these two components with regards to disordered eating is yet unexplored. This gap in understanding was the source of inquiry for my study. Binge Eating Disorder (BED) is the most prevalent of the eating disorders. Being that I did not have access to a sizable BED group, I focused on subthreshold BED (SBED). I hypothesized that (a) SBED participants will demonstrate disadvantageous decision making; (b) SBED participants will place high value on media, peers, and family as a source self-perception; (c) SBED participants’ high sensitivity to media, peers and family promotes self-gratifying DM; (d) Gender differences will be significant with regards to external risk factors, but no difference in decision making. Participants were recruited from introductory psychology classes. An online survey was administered to measure eating attitudes, decision making pattern, and influence of media, peers, and family on binge eating symptomology. I anticipate finding that SBED participants demonstrate decision making impairments and sensitivities to risk factors. Additionally, I anticipate differences in the way risk factors are perceived between genders. Understanding the interaction between decision making and risk factors could lead to possible therapies for and preventive measures against disordered eating. A more in-depth study of clinical and subthreshold disordered eating is needed to ascertain a clearer understanding of the interplay between these two key components of disordered eating.

RNA Polymerase V is a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase involved in RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) (Matzke M et al 2007). RdDM is required for transcriptional silencing of intergenic regions, repetitive DNA, and transposons genome-wide. Arabidopsis polV mutants show increased developmental instability and aberrant root hairs. We hypothesize these phenotypes are the result of alterations in transcriptional silencing and we predict changes in transcriptional silencing are due to altered chromatin accessibility. To asses chromatin accessibility in polV mutant plants we will use a technique called DNaseI-seq that chops up chromatin with a restriction enzyme. This technique allows us to measure which regions of the genome are highly accessible to transcriptional machinery and which are not. Currently, I am developing transgenic plant strains as well as quality control assays to improve DNaseI-seq feasibility in polV mutant plants.  Thus the knowledge will enhance our understanding of developmental instabilities in Arabidopsis and plants in general.
 

Tuning the gene expression of biomolecular pathways is an area of intense interest and value to synthetic biologists. Through the use of a mixture controlled turbidostat (MCT), we have been able to streamline, and in many cases enable the processes involved in this area of study. A turbidostat is a continuous culture bioreactor that maintains constant culture volume and cell density while diluting with fresh media to keep cells in an exponential growth phase. With the addition of mixture control, the turbidostat can vary the chemical environment within the culture vessel without altering cell density levels. Tuning gene expression in Escherichia coli is a simple matter when using a MCT. Currently, an area of global interest is the industrial production of butanol with E. coli. The first step towards this is enabling E. coli to live in rich butanol environments. Because butanol is naturally toxic to E. coli, an increase in gene expressions of the biomolecular pathways responsible for detoxification of butanol is required. By placing laboratory grade E. coli into our MCT, the concentration of butanol can be increased over time while the cell density remains constant. This will allow fitness increasing mutations within the biomolecular pathways responsible for detoxification of butanol to prevail over many generations, with the hope of eventually converging to a final population of E. coli that subsists in highly concentrated butanol environments. Through increasing E. coli’s resistance to butanol, we hope to illustrate the usefulness of MCTs in tuning gene expression of biomolecular pathways.

Repairing spinal injuries is an important yet elusive goal of modern medicine. Our group has recently demonstrated that intraspinal stimulation may lead to some level of plasticity and recovery after incomplete spinal cord injury. One challenge in complete regeneration of the brain and spinal cord is that the presence of peri-neuronal nets limits plasticity at synapses in the adult central nervous system. Chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) is an enzyme known to dissolve chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans in these plasticity-inhibiting peri-neuronal nets. When delivered near a spinal cord injury, ChABC can lead to significant levels of recovery. Our goal is to determine whether the combination of intraspinal stimulation and ChABC augments recovery after incomplete spinal cord injury. Our experimental paradigm involves training rats in a forelimb reaching task before performing incomplete contusion injuries at the C4 vertebral level. Spinal stimulating wires are then implanted below the injury, and animals are randomly assigned to one of two groups that receive ChABC or ChABC + spinal stimulation. Animals are then given daily spinal stimulation treatments and are tested at the forelimb reaching task for several months to assess their level of recovery. We expect to see rats that receiving the ChABC treatment succeed at the reaching task with greater frequency than those that only receive spinal stimulation. In addition, these ChABC-treated rats should, over time, regain a greater degree of skilled motor-function than their stimulation-only counterparts. In related experiments, spinal stimulation triggered from brain activity may be an even more powerful and specific cue for plasticity. Additional experiments may test the combined effects of ChABC with brain-triggered stimulation, even in the uninjured adult spinal cord. If this is indeed the case, our work could lead to an effective combination therapy for repairing human spinal injuries.

In recent years, gold nanoparticles have been utilized in biomedical applications due to their biocompatibility as well as unique optical properties. In order for the gold nanoparticles to become effective agents, they are functionalized with vectors that will target the nanoparticles to specific cells to be imaged. Conventionally, hybrid gold nanostructures have been produced by complex, multistep chemical cross-linking bioconjugation procedures usually involving biologically-unfriendly stringent conditions. To overcome difficulties related to conventional cross-linking methods, we propose a novel surface functionalization platform using biocompatible gold-binding peptide templates (AuBP). AuBPs were previously selected from combinatorial FliTrx peptide library and demonstrated nanomolar binding affinities to a gold surface under physiological conditions. We then conjugated AuBP with other binding domains engineered to bind to the constant Fc-region of an antibody (FcBP). This antibody is then recognized by receptors in the cell membrane for absorption. The bifunctional AuBP-FcBP peptides self-assemble on the surface of the gold nanoparticles, and effective gold binding is shown through a localized surface plasmon resonance, high-salinity stability assay and gel electrophoresis. A dot blotting assay is used to confirm the binding of the antibodies. These peptide-functionalized and cell-specific nanoprobes have a great potential for developing novel bioimaging tools for diagnostics and therapy.

People always say ‘never talk about religion at a party,’ this is true even for college students. But if you’re a female in college, talking about religion is not only taboo, it’s unheard of. After being brought up by parents with two different ideologies, Christianity and Islam, I set out with this research project to better understand what role religion plays for my other female peers. Analyzing predominantly what their chosen theology means to their identity, how they advocate for their faith, how their ideology intersects with dating and what they perceive to be the biggest misconception about them for being religiously affiliated. I chose women who were students at UW from a variety of majors who identified with either Christian or Islamic based faiths, since this is where the majority of my previous research and experience has been. My primary methods were through long-form interviews, ethnographic observations and interacting with them on a daily basis as they moved their lives and their faith. Hearing about the challenges these women overcome on a daily basis just for identifying with a particular religion has solidified my hypothesis that ideology plays a pivotal role in their undergraduate career. Based on my research thus far, it has proven that it affects them in regards to their academics, involvement on campus and their interactions with their peers on campus. Further research will yield more information about the depth that these affects have taken. Overall, the outcomes have also been both surprising and inspirational to see how these women embrace, advocate and represent their faith. This work aims to open up and spark some dialogue about what religion means to college students and how societal framework does not always accurately represent these identities.

The purpose of this study is to address the question of whether graduate students, who have finished their undergraduate study at Boise State University (BSU), feel they were adequately prepared by their undergraduate education to meet writing challenges at the graduate level. Professors have also raised questions as to what level of preparedness incoming graduate students should have. With BSU set to implement a new approach to learning writing across the curriculum, this study may aid in defining at-risk areas in writing; identified by both graduate students and faculty. Surveys will be given to graduate students who have completed their undergraduate degree from Boise State University as well as to the faculty teaching graduate courses. The purpose of the survey is to get students to self-assess the level of their preparedness and identify specific areas of deficiency. The survey given to the faculty will be much the same but with an emphasis on evaluation of the writing of incoming graduate students in general. Follow-up focus group discussions will enable more in-depth exploration of issues raised by the surveys. Data from these surveys will be analyzed and correlated with the outcomes of the new Communication in the Discipline (CID) courses to see if there are areas of writing need - and if the new CID courses will fill those needs. I hypothesize that there will be areas in which each group wants improvement, and that there will be a strong correlation between the two groups. I also propose that the CID course outcomes will specifically address some of the identified areas of need. This research project has the potential to identify areas of current need, as well as provide a base from which follow-up research may evaluate the ongoing success of the Boise State CID courses.

Learning and memory require that neural activity be flexibly organized. Neurons must sometimes fire together in ensembles so that important signals are not lost in the complex activity of the brain, but these ensembles must also be capable of forming, breaking apart, or reforming at a moment’s notice. Such transient synchrony of neural activity may be achieved by means of oscillatory firing. Oscillatory firing at various frequencies is commonly found in electrophysiological recordings from the brain and may underlie the dynamic organization of neural activity. We investigated oscillatory activity in a brain region critical to learning and memory, the hippocampus. The power of oscillatory activity in the hippocampus at several frequency bands including gamma (30-80 hz) has been linked to successful encoding and recall in hippocampus-dependent memory tasks. Prior work has also shown that inputs from the ventral tegmental area are necessary for normal hippocampal function and for spatial learning and memory. These inputs occur in two forms: tonic baseline firing and intermittent phasic bursts. We tested genetic knockout mice that lack phasic but not tonic inputs from the ventral tegmental area while animals foraged for food on a spatial navigation task. We simultaneously recorded local field potentials in the hippocampus, which represent the net inputs to a region of the brain and allow us to assess the power of oscillatory activity. In the preliminary data, knockout mice demonstrated more rapid learning in response to successive manipulations of the reward location compared to controls. Knockouts also showed higher gamma-frequency but not theta-frequency (4-10 hz) power. These results suggest that phasic inputs from the ventral tegmental area selectively inhibit gamma-frequency oscillations in the hippocampus. This role may be behaviorally relevant, reflecting the possibility that these oscillations play a role in organizing learning and memory.

Ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic cell firing encodes reward information and has been implicated in reinforcement learning, spatial memory and decision-making. However the mechanisms which modulate VTA dopaminergic burst firing are not well known. A division of the mesonpontine tegmentum, the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDTg) provides inputs into the VTA. Inactivation of the LDTg greatly reduces VTA dopaminergic burst firing, implicating the LDTg’s role in permitting VTA activity. In the current study we sought to determine the nature of the information coded by LDTg neurons in order to better understand the type of information that regulates dopamine cell activity. We assessed this by neurophysiological single unit recordings of LDTg cell activity in freely behaving rats. Rats were trained on an 8-arm radial maze, which required spatial and working memory in order to, without errors, forage for large and small rewards located at the end of arms. Experimental manipulations consisted of omitting expected rewards, switching the location of rewards of different magnitudes and imposing darkness during the maze trials. We recorded a total of 83 different cells, which were histologically confirmed to be located in the LDTg. We found a large number of reward-related cells (9.6% became excited when rats encountered reward, 8.4% showed excitation in anticipation of reward, 4.8% showed excitatory, then inhibitory and then excitatory responses around the time of reward) and movement related cells (76% were correlated with the rat’s velocity). The large proportion of velocity-correlated cells supports the LDTg’s role in motor behavior. Context and reward manipulations did not consistently affect the firing rate of LDTg cellular activity. However, the current study demonstrates that with 25% of LDTg cells exhibiting reward-related responses, the LDTg has a role in reward encoding by a permissive affect on VTA dopaminergic burst firing.

Mesanchymal stem cells (MSC) can differentiate into a variety of cell lineages, including adipocytes, chondrocytes, and osteoblasts. This gives them great potential for use in regenerative medicine. To harness this potential, we must understand the effects of the various stimuli that can be applied to cells in in vitro culture. We produced an ECM mimetic nano-grooved cell culture substrate via capillary force lithography. An agarose diffusive microfluidic device was used to establish an SDF-1 α gradient across the nanogrooved substrate. Bone marrow derived mesanchymal stem cells (BM-MSC) were seeded on the substrate, and live cell imaging was carried out over a few days’ time. Using the time-lapse images, the differentiation, proliferation, motility, and elongation of the BM-MSC were analyzed and quantified. Understanding the synergistic effects of topography and bio molecular gradients will prove helpful in future efforts to create MSC regenerative medicines.

According to the World Health Organization, every year about 3.3 million babies are stillborn and more than 4 million die within 28 days of birth. Yet the death of a baby remains a very difficult subject in contemporary American society and bereavement interventions in perinatal medicine are still quite limited. This research will expand our understanding of the role photography plays in assisting parents with the process of mourning neonatal, perinatal, and infant death. By examining the perspectives of healthcare professionals, photographers, and parents in regard to the practice of bereavement photography, the research will investigate the ways in which photographs are used and transmitted, in both the private realm of bereaved families and the public domain of cyberspace. This study aims to understand how photography is used in the process of memory making and consequently, how the act of creating memories enables emotional healing. Finally, it will explore how bereavement photography exists at the junction of two shifts simultaneously occurring in cultural practices and social attitudes: the renegotiation of the boundaries between public and private, and the development of newer, characteristically modern, expressions of grief. This work has the potential to raise awareness about this developing mourning practice and increase the efficacy of bereavement interventions in neonatal and perinatal care, with the ultimate goal of providing a more widely available framework for helping parents cope with this hitherto often unspoken of, and invisible, loss.

Imidacloprid (IMI) may be a viable alternative to carbaryl for controlling burrowing shrimp that destabilize sediments, resulting in poor survival and low yields of Pacific oysters. However, efficacy varies among substrates and laboratory tests indicate the shrimp are relatively insensitive to IMI (24-h LC50's > 12,000 ppb active ingredient [ai]) and 10x greater than those in sediment pore water following application of 4x the desired application rate. These results contrast sharply with observed efficacy in the field, with significant mortality occurring 72-96 h post application in sandy substrate at 0.5 lbs ai/ac. Reasons are not known, but an understanding of the factors governing efficacy in the field may improve control within muddy substrates and those with eelgrass. We exposed adult N. californiensis in seawater to IMI (Nuprid® 2F) simulating concentrations reported in sandy substrate following application of 0.5 lbs ai per acre. Concentrations were the means from a pore-water fate curve: 0-6 h = 150 ppb ai, 6-24 h (24), 24-48 h (10), 48-72 h (6), and 72-96 h (4.3) plus negative controls with 10 shrimp at each time interval (5 IMI, 5 controls), a loading of 0.31 L/g, and water exchanges at the end of each time period. Water quality and overt effects were monitored. At the end of each exposure, the ability of shrimp to burrow in sandy substrate was evaluated. All IMI-exposed shrimp survived, were overtly affected, and none burrowed. In contrast, all controls appeared normal and 96% exhibited burrowing behavior. Results suggest applications of IMI (0.5 lbs ai/ac) will not directly kill shrimp, exposed shrimp may not be able to maintain their burrows, and death may result from burrow collapse. Factors that maintain burrow integrity (mud/organic matter, eelgrass roots) may explain differences in observed efficacy. Laboratory tests with shrimp exposed to IMI within burrows are needed.

Tickle-Degnen and Rosenthal identified coordination as signaling a strong interpersonal connection between two people (also known as dyadic rapport). This coordination, termed behavioral synchrony in past research, can be conceptually defined as the unintentional mirroring of another’s behavior. Investigations on the relationship between rapport and synchrony in educational (Bernieri; LaFrance) and clinical (Ramseyer & Tschacher) settings provide evidence validating this rapport-synchrony interaction. Situational conditions may impact dyadic rapport, including perceptions of authority (Dunbar; Grahe & Sherman). Focus on the dyad’s gender-makeup is also salient to power theory as gender roles can be associated with dominance (Dunbar). The present study examined these phenomena using a research design drawn from a project proposal by Dr. Fabian Ramseyer for the Collective Undergraduate Research Project. Alongside his proposal, Dr. Ramseyer generously provided access to the Motion Energy Analysis (Rokesby & Ramseyer), an innovative tool designed to evaluate synchronous behavior. This computerized program translated video footage of a dyadic interaction into quantitative measures of synchrony, thereby eliminating the need for researchers to subjectively code the videos. In the experiment, participants (Ndyad = 34) first responded to a short pre-test measuring empathy and interpersonal behavior intentions. Dyads then completed a dyadic task developing a six-course menu for a party in a 2 (Gender Specificity: Superbowl vs. Baby Shower) X 2 (Partition of Responsibility: Equal or Individual) X 3 (Dyad Makeup: Male-Male, Mixed, Female-Female) between-S design. After the interaction, they completed post-test measures of mood and relationship quality. Results from this research can be extended to both clinical and non-clinical settings, acting as guidelines for the construction of dyadic partnerships in a way that encourages effective rapport-building.

Most adults have some degree of atherosclerosis. In a subset of these individuals, atherosclerosis progresses more rapidly. Increased activity of proteases (enzymes that digest proteins) in atherosclerotic plaques is a plausible cause both of atherosclerosis progression and of atherosclerotic plaque rupture. Plaque rupture is often a terminal event that results in blockage of arteries, heart attacks and strokes. Urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA, a protease that is present in plaques) functions by converting plasminogen (a zymogen, or enzyme precursor) into its active form, plasmin. The uPA/plasminogen pathway facilitates macrophage migration, enhances the release of inflammatory mediators, and activates other proteolytic enzymes, all of which may contribute to atherosclerosis progression and plaque rupture. We hypothesize that inhibition of uPA will decrease atherosclerosis progression and prevent plaque rupture. To begin to test our hypothesis, we use a mouse model of uPA-accelerated atherosclerosis (mice that are genetically predisposed to develop atherosclerosis and express high levels of uPA). We inject an antibody (mU1) that binds to and inhibits uPA, or a control antibody, and we measure atherosclerosis in aortic roots and pinned aortas. We anticipate finding less atherosclerosis in mice treated with mU1. We also expect to find fewer macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques of mice treated with mU1. If we find that inhibition of uPA decreases atherosclerosis progression and that it is also well tolerated by mice, we will later set up an experiment in older mice to determine whether anti-uPA treatment with mU1 will prevent plaque rupture. If uPA activity contributes to atherosclerosis progression, and if inhibiting uPA decreases atherosclerosis progression and prevents plaque rupture, drugs could be developed that inhibit uPA. These drugs could be used to treat humans who are at high risk for atherosclerosis progression and plaque rupture.

The study of capital punishment ultimately comes down to matters of life or death, and this fundamental concept is reflected by the ferocity of the debate over its legality. With the high stakes of this debate, national polls dating back to the 1930s have been quantitatively tracking public opinion on this issue. National poll data on capital punishment provides an excellent opportunity to examine the important relationship between state policies and public opinion over time. Currently, the vast body of research has been concentrated on identifying national demographic variables associated with support for capital punishment, and the influence of opinion on policy. However, there has been little research considering these variables at the state-level of analysis. Furthermore, few studies have researched the directional influence of policies on opinion. The objective of this study is to determine how state variables and policies including: violent crime rates, number of executions, and number of exonerations explain fluctuations in public opinion over time. The findings suggest a positive relationship between violent crime rates and support for capital punishment over time. There also appears to be a positive relationship between the number of executions and support for capital punishment; in other words, as the number of executions increases so does the support for capital punishment. Lastly, the support for capital punishment was found to decrease over time with increasing number of exonerations. The narrower focus of this state level analysis is important to examine underlying trends in public opinion, which may not be captured with nation wide studies.

Public policy affects nearly every aspect of life in the United States. These policies are set largely by legislatures and originate in the policy ideas proposed by individual members. In studies of how policy ideas become law, the archetypical unit of study is the bill. However bills are imperfect indicators of the progress of policy ideas—individual policy ideas may progress even when the original bill does not. This paper uses computational methods to isolate policy ideas in the over 114,000 bills proposed since 1993 before tracing the progress of those ideas through the legislative process. The success of members in pushing individual bills is often equated with their efficacy in the legislative machine. I anticipate that a study of the progress of policy ideas, rather than bills, will demonstrate that policy influence is more widespread in Congress than existing research suggests. The results of this initial study will serve as the foundation for broader research projects examining agenda setting and representation in Congress.

Comic books have long been used as an educational tool to improve and protect public health in the U.S. In 2008, the Native Comic Book Project (NCBP) was launched as a youth-focused community education project of Native People for Cancer Control (NPCC); a National Cancer Institute funded Community Network Program Center, based at the University of Washington. The availability of cancer screening tests, high quality health care, encouragement for health promoting behaviors, and access to cancer clinical trials, are often not available to tribal communities. As a result, American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) experience the worst cancer related disparities and have the poorest survival rate among all other racial/ethnic groups. The purpose of the NCBP is to reduce cancer risk by involving AI/AN youth in creating comic books on health topic such as health living, tobacco use, cancer risk, disease prevention, and physical fitness. The NCBP is modeled after Dr. Michael Bitz’s The Comic Book Project, but is adapted for AI/AN youth and incorporates Native storytelling and traditional ways of living. We are currently conducting a formal evaluation of the NCBP using pre- and post-intervention assessments to measure knowledge, habits, and decision-making regarding tobacco use, healthy eating, exercise habits, and human papilloma virus (HPV).

Immigration law is developed and enforced through cooperation between the state and federal government. There are times when the state legislature creates laws that supplement federal policies in order to conduct immigration enforcement unique to their situation. A state’s public perception regarding immigrants can result in the legislature drafting pro-immigrant or anti-immigrant policies. Previous research by Merkowitz and Yoder (2009) discusses how the U.S. national legislature responds to public opinion about immigrants. They find legislatures are influenced by demographics of their districts. This research will examine the state legislature of Idaho and its response to public perceptions about immigrants. I will be testing to see if immigration policy is a function of the following variables: party affiliation, state demographics, and regional industries. Each variable will be tested independently while controlling for other potential explanatory factors. I will get data for this analysis this summer by conducting a survey using a sample of Idaho state legislators, advocacy groups, and special interests that represent the state’s participants on immigration policy making. In addition to the survey, I will make an analysis on how legislators vote on immigration related legislation from the years 2000 to 2010. Finally, I will create an index that will determine if the responses from the survey and a legislator’s votes are pro-immigrant or anti-immigrant. I will define if a legislators pro-immigrant or anti-immigrant by how far their proposals deviates from current federal immigration policy. I expect the results will show that the state legislature responds more to the state’s demography and economy than the legislator’s party affiliation. The results from this research will reveal who are the primary actors in Idaho’s immigration legislation process. The results will show if there is a difference between the national legislature’s reaction to public pressure and how Idaho’s state legislature reacts.

Statistical learning is the process of identifying a language’s structure by tracking patterns of regularities within the language. Recent studies indicate that infants can use the statistical regularities of syllable patterns to find words in fluent speech, which enables them to associate meanings to words. We do not know, however, if statistical learning can also help adults learn words. In the present study, 40 adults ages 18-30 will participate in a segmentation phase in which they listen to 5 minutes of an artificial speech stream consisting of nonsense words. The artificial language will ensure that adults are being exposed to a language that is unfamiliar to them. To teach the labels, adults will be presented with novel objects matching each label. They will hear four words they heard previously in the segmentation phase and four new words. The method of teaching and testing labels will be the same as used with infants. However, the task for adults will be more complex because they will be presented with more labels. To test participants’ knowledge of the two types of labels, we will examine their ability to look at the correct object when they hear the specific label. Our expectations are that, similar to infants, the segmentation phase will help adults link the labels to the correct objects. Without the previous segmentation experience learning the labels is expected to be more difficult. This study will reveal how the learning processes of adults relate to the learning processes of infants.

The purpose of this study was to investigate one explanation for why religious people have been found to be happier than non-religious people. Given that gratitude has been shown to be an important aspect of psychological well-being, we theorize that an individual’s gratefulness towards God should mediate their happiness due to an increased availability of gratitude expression as well as creating a larger pool of events to be grateful for. We expected this mediation to manifest in the form of a participant memory bias as well as significant contributions to well-being after accounting for their gratitude disposition. In order to test this hypothesis, we analyzed the reported religiosity, well-being, and recalled significant events taking place in the past month of 133 college students. The results from this study seem to indicate that gratefulness towards God may not explain the happiness of religious people beyond their general gratitude.

Ultrasound (US) and microbubbles (MBs), as tools for gene transfection, have promising implications for gene therapy. Through permeation, US facilitates the diffusion of a gene or drug from the capillaries into the cell. Binding of the gene or drug to the MBs can further enhance the delivery efficiency, and when exposed to US, the MBs are ultimately cavitated once they have reached their target. Our goal is to create MBs that will enhance US-mediated transfection. Concerning MB production, we have shown that our prepared MBs are more concentrated, stable, and consistent than those of the leading manufacturers, via flow cytometry and Coulter Counter analysis. In in vitro experiments, we have shown that US, by itself, increases transfection efficiency (plasmid concentration in cells) of pGL3 and pGFP in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. 293 cells are transfected very readily and consistently and are therefore useful as a way to accurately quantify gene expression from transfection. Combined with MBs, transfection efficiency is further improved upon. US parameters (intensity, exposure time, frequency) and MB characteristics (concentration, size, distribution, stability) are interdependent, and thus the optimization of each parameter is important. With regards to US parameters, exposure times have been varied from 1 to 5 minutes, at intensities ranging from 0.5 to 2 watts, and the optimal condition (cells transfected minus cells killed) has been found to be 2 watts per square centimeter for 3 minutes. These conditions have been combined to quantify 293 cell gene expression. It has been shown that MBs enhance transfection rates by up to 25 times when compared to those with just US. These results have important implications in gene therapy as a means of non-invasive, localized, and efficient gene delivery.

The Brome Mosaic Virus (BMV) is an RNA virus that infects granary plants. It consists of three distinct viral particles which consists of each of three distinct BMV RNA molecules wrapped by many copies of the Coat Protein (CP). CP's regulatory roles in the replication processes of BMV are conducted through controlling the efficiency of both RNA replication and protein translation. Previous studies have shown that a 22-residue peptide (CPNT) derived from the N terminal region of CP can penetrate the host cell membrane and deliver the BMV genomic RNA into the host cell. The long-term goal of this project is to investigate the conformational characteristics of CPNT and to explore its binding characteristics on the different parts of BMV genomic RNA. As a first step, a 29 residue-long peptide mimicking the N-terminal region of CP (CPNT-1) was chemically synthesized and its overall conformation was investigated using Circular Dichroism (CD) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The CD spectra showed that it has only 12% of a-helix structure and 50% of random coil, implicating high conformational flexibility. Given that these Cys residues are not a part of the functionally crucial region of CPNT, we designed a new CPNT construct without any Cys residues (CPNT-2). Our preliminary results showed that the 1 dimensional NMR spectra showed that CPNT forms appreciable amount of secondary and/or tertiary structures in native sequence (27 amino acid residues on N’ end: CPNT-2). When the end of CPNT was replaced by multiple Cys residues (CPNT-1), it is either aggregated or becomes a random, flexible conformation. CD as well as nuclear magnetic resonance analyses have been performed on CPNT-2 and the preliminary data showed that the peptide forms secondary structure. Currently we are investigating the detailed structural characteristics of CPNT-2 using CD and nuclear magnetic resonance analysis.

Autonomous control systems are critical for the operation of aerial vehicles and spacecraft. This project focuses on the development of an autonomous control system for a robotic vehicle by simulating the model of the vehicle using computer software. This model will then be used for testing various control schemes. In particular, variation of the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller will be used and tested. The main goal of this research is to implement the autonomous control system on the vehicle and compare the response of the vehicle to those generated by our computer simulation. Specifically, the research will focus on the development process of the PID controller. Our results will then verify whether the developed mathematical model is accurate for the purpose of predicting actual system response. The objective of the analysis is to confirm the advantages and disadvantages of each control scheme and to develop an autonomous control algorithm for the vehicle. In-depth analysis will also provide insights into the difficulties and challenges of developing a mathematical model that accurately simulates all states of the system, as well as the complications involved in creating a system that precisely controls the vehicle as desired by the user.

According to American cultural tradition, domestic and work responsibilities are typically split between the spouses. The wife satisfies the domestic role and stays at home to care for the house and children while the husband goes out into industry to earn money. But with the recent economic decline, there has been an increase in the number of husbands enacting the domestic role as stay-at-home dads. Like many emerging social profiles, stay-at-home dads are struggling to establish a sense of community and individual identity given their limited networking resources and experience in the domestic domain. Transitioning from a role defined by the status of their job and their level of income, new stay-at-home dads may find it difficult to adjust to their new role. The primary scope of this project is twofold: 1) to create a profile of usability needs for the emerging audience of stay-at-home dads, and 2) to develop an online space for both new and current stay-at-home dads so they can network and share their experiences in the domestic domain. While our contextual inquires and competitive analysis of preexisting stay-at-home dad forums demonstrate a growing audience, our individual interviews with stay-at-home dads confirm the high demand for a user-friendly online space to stay connected with other stay-at-home dads. We report initial findings from research activities focused on designing an online space that meets the expectations of personal and social growth for stay-at-home dads.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (a.k.a., PTSD) is prevalent among military veterans. Due to the ghastly nature of war, veterans have witnessed violent and disturbing events that affect them for the rest of their lives. Upon returning from duty, these veterans often have difficulty making the transition from the battlefield to civilian life. Veterans’ experiences in the battlefield often results in years of emotional, behavioral, sexual and social issues. This lingers for a lifetime, unless these veterans are helped. To identify ways to assist veterans with PTSD, this study will focus on male veterans who served in the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2011. During the research process, this study will focus on the following questions: 1) what is the scope of depression among this population? 2) How does depression cause barriers to civilian life? The purpose of this research is to enhance understanding of depression related to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) for military veterans. Many families have veterans who go through difficulties, and this study may assist them in addressing PTSD and related depression issues. The research will be done by analyzing literature written about military veterans, and literature written by veterans themselves. Through greater understanding of the factors that contribute to stress and other mental health issues of Afghanistan War, veterans returning to civilian life, may better prevent and alleviate much of their suffering.

Healthy pregnancies and optimal fetal development are crucial to ensure a healthy future for not only the mother and child but for our society as a whole. In addition to personal health behaviors and genetic factors, environmental toxins can pose significant risks to the pregnant woman and her developing fetus. A recently initiated longitudinal study of children in Ramsey County, Minnesota seeks to investigate the long term health consequence of exposure to environmental pollutants including radiation and selected chemicals. Prenatal education, including avoidance of environmental contaminants, for pregnant women can help reduce these risks and complications by informing pregnant woman about the impact of environmental factors. The purpose of this research was to determine prospective mothers’ awareness and knowledge of environmental impacts upon pregnancy and fetal development. Data were collected by written survey from pregnant women attending selected prenatal education classes in both rural and urban Minnesota cities.

Huntington’s disease (HD) is a genetic neurodegenerative disease caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the protein huntingtin. The age of symptom onset has been correlated with the length of this repeat. Adults with a repeat length of greater than 35 polyglutamines typically present symptoms between the ages of 40 and 50. Greater than 60 polyglutamine repeats causes a rapidly progressing early onset of the disease in adolescents. While both types of HD result in cognitive deficits and neuron loss, 25-35% of early-onset HD patients exhibit epileptic seizures that become less responsive to anti-epileptics over time. One of the earliest molecular changes in HD is the loss of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) before symptom onset. Activation of CB1 inhibits the release of neurotransmitters and protects neurons from cell death, whereas genetic deletion in HD models exacerbates motor symptoms. Additionally, activation of CB1 prevents the onset of seizures. The goal of this study was to determine if loss of CB1 activation increased epileptic activity, decreased survival, and whether elevating endocannabinoid (CB1 agonists) levels reversed these effects in early-onset HD. R6/2 mice (a rapidly progressing mouse model of early-onset HD) were treated with SR141716A (a CB1 antagonist), WWL123 (elevates the level of endocannabinoids), or vehicle (a control) and the frequency and severity of spontaneous and handling-induced seizures were analyzed. Preliminary results demonstrated that R6/2 mice treated with SR141716A had a decreased lifespan and more frequent seizures whereas WWL123 decreased seizure severity. This suggests that the endocannabinoid system has a regulatory effect on seizures associated with early-onset HD. Future experiments in the lab will further characterize the role of endocannabinoids and CB1 in early-onset HD seizures as a novel therapeutic pathway.

A key factor involved in the exploration of Mars is the possibility that Mars may have harbored life early in its history. As the presence of liquid water is essential for life, NASA is pursuing the identification of aqueous salt minerals on the Martian surface. These minerals include magnesium sulfate of various hydration states, Magnesium Chloride, Calcium Sulfate, Magnesium Perchlorate, Potassium Perchlorate, and Sodium Perchlorate.  Recently, two NASA spacecrafts have returned imagery of mineral salt deposits on the Martian surface and it is hypothesized that these crystalline solids were formed when a salt solution cooled below its so-called eutectic temperature – the point at which everything becomes solidified. These cold salt deposit are known as “cryogenites”. These cryogenites can be crystallographically distinguished from “evaporates”, which are crystals left behind after water has evaporated. It is possible to create laboratory simulations of these aqueous salt deposits that are believed to be in abundance on Mars to compare the morphologies and compositions of the different cryogenites. The temperature and concentration of the solution affect the number of water molecules attached to the resulting crystals and therefore the morphologies of the different crystals. We used multiple cooling methods including walk-in cold rooms, chest freezers, and standard refrigerators to cool our salt solutions below their respective eutectic temperatures. After cooling, some eutectic solids contained ice that needed to be sublimated which further required the use of hydrophilic chemicals such as CaCl2 to pull off the moisture and isolate the salt crystals. Another method we used was to desiccate the solid by freeze drying. After photographing the cryogenite crystals under a microscope, crystal morphologies will be compared with that from the lander imagery. We will examine the lander images in the context of our laboratory images, noting both similarities and differences.

Quorum sensing is cell density-dependent communication that regulates many functions in bacteria. Signal synthases (I) produce acyl-homoserine lactones, which diffuse into the environment and activate signal receptors (R) when they reach a critical concentration. Synthases and receptors often form cognate pairs. The soil bacterium Burkholderia thailandensis encodes three I-R pairs. The I-R1 system controls cell-cell aggregation and activates many putative aggregation factors including the bce genes that likely encode an exopolysaccharide. The I-R2 system controls antibiotic production. The antibiotics are members of the bactobolin family and are effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Both aggregation and antibiotics are believed to promote competitiveness in the diverse soil communities where B. thailandensis is found. We have developed genetic screens to learn more about quorum-controlled antibiotics and aggregation in B. thailandensis. The first screen identified bactobolin-resistant isolates of the soil bacterium Bacillis subtilis, which is normally sensitive to bactobolin. We submitted these mutants for whole genome sequencing to investigate the mutations that confer resistance, and with our results we hope to gain insight into how bactobolin acts on target cells. The second screen was designed to isolate variants that overproduce aggregation factors. Quorum sensing mutants do not wrinkle but variants arise that produce aggregation factors by other means. We are isolating such variants and identifying the underlying mutations to understand how they compensate for the loss of quorum sensing regulation. This may reveal the elements involved in regulating aggregation. These variants will also be useful to learn about the advantages of aggregation in different contexts. Through our two screens we hope to better understand quorum-controlled aggregation and antibiotic phenotypes. Our findings will be useful in further studies of the importance of each of these in competition.

Homo floresiensis diverges from the traditional morphological form associated with bipedalism: the size of their foot is long compared to the length of their femur. Here we examine the effect of lengthening the foot of modern humans to proportions like that seen in H. floresiensis on gait parameters. We hypothesize that the swing leg will need to be raised to allow the longer foot to clear the ground.  A sample of 8 women aged 18-30 years was used. A ratio of 0.87 (foot length / fibula length) was calculated using estimated measurements of the type specimen of H. floresiensis (LB1). A foot extension device (FED) was created to extend the feet of each participant. Each participant walked for a total of 10 trials at slow, preferred and fast velocities both with and without the FED. An 8-camera Qualisys system was used to measure the 3D trajectories of 3 markers placed of standard anatomical landmarks. The trajectory of the patella marker was analyzed to determine if there was a significant change in the height that the leg was raised while wearing the FED compared to without. Participants raised their right leg an average of 121 mm without the FED and 125 mm with, a nonsignificant difference (p = 0.446).  These results indicate that there is no significant change in the kinematics while walking with an extended foot, although a larger sample might reveal more subtle changes. Future work will include the analysis of more anatomical markers and larger sample sizes.

 As a river feeds into the ocean, a buoyant, laterally spreading, rapidly moving layer of fluid which runs seaward over the ocean surface (i.e., a river plume) is formed. At the interface between the fluids, shear stress creates turbulence, which causes mixing and plume deceleration. Additionally, pressure differences due to density differences and the plume surface slope create a pressure imbalance. The interplay of these and other processes are poorly understood. This lack of understanding is in contrast to the importance of river plumes dynamics: plume dynamics determine the ultimate concentration of contaminants and biological debris (notably red tide) in a larger (geostrophic) scale current which forms after the plume decelerates significantly. This geostrophic current runs along the coast and can transport contaminants to coastal marine ecosystems, beaches, and coastal communities. In order to predict the potential danger in the propagation of river contaminants along coasts, it is necessary to develop a quantitative understanding of plume dynamics. To this end, a momentum balance (an application of Newton’s Second Law to fluid flow) is currently being carried out. The relevant terms in this balance are the along-flow pressure gradient, the vertical turbulent interfacial stress gradient, and the total acceleration. Each of these terms can be constructed from velocity and density profiles which have been obtained for different experiments under both channelized and spreading conditions using particle image velocimetry (PIV) and particle laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF). By comparing the relative magnitudes of terms in the balance, a quantitative understanding of the importance of different dynamical processes will be obtained, and by comparing the form of the balance in channelized and spreading cases, a hypothesized relationship between spreading (which causes the fluid to collapse and accelerate) and turbulence/mixing (the magnitude of which is determined by the speed of the plume) will be investigated.

Pain is a complicated sensory experience involving several neural circuits and structures. Previous research has examined the neural activity associated with processing and perceiving pain. One study examined the relationship between the average self-reported pain ratings and the average electrophysiological brain activity of Spinal Cord Injury Participants with chronic pain, as measured by electroencephalography (EEG). Significant relationships between pain perception and alpha wave activity around the sensory integration areas of the brain (electrode sites T3 and T4) were found. This study aims to further explore the relationship between expression and perception of pain and corresponding EEG measurements. Waveform analysis of the raw EEG data recorded just before and after the reporting of each pain rating will allow us to examine pain-related neural activity in more detail surrounding the time the participant consciously perceived and rated their pain.  Independent Component Analysis (ICA) allows us to isolate and examine the specific contribution of each frequency at each electrode.  Main effects of each wavelength and how they may interact will also be explored. Analysis software will help us graphically visualize and model the data, creating a preliminary visual representation of the neural activity measured. Further use of neuroimaging analysis software will help to better understand neural pain pathways. With further analysis, it may be possible to utilize computer programs to create a model that can imitate and test these indicated circuits. This analysis will provide us with a more dynamic understanding of the “chronic pain brain” and  will provide a baseline against which to compare brain activity after treatments.

Chronic social-stress is known to lead to a number of aberrant behaviors, including anxiety and depression. Using a mouse model of social-defeat stress, this project aims to better understand the relationship between the kappa-opioid receptor (KOR), a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) previously shown to be activated by multiple forms of stress, and its role in generating anxiety-like and aversion behaviors in mice. Different forms of stress lead to the release of the endogenous KOR agonist, dynorphin, which activates an intracellular signal transduction cascade resulting in anxiety-like and aversion behaviors. Prior studies have demonstrated that the long-acting KOR antagonist, norbinaltorphimine (norBNI), is able to reduce social-defeat induced social avoidance behaviors when administered prior to social defeat stress exposure. Although these studies have implicated the KOR system in social-defeat induced behaviors, pretreatment of pharmacotherapies prior to a stress event is limited in therapeutic benefit.  In this research, the ability of norBNI to reverse repeated social-defeat induced changes in social behaviors was tested by administering norBNI following exposure to the social-defeat stress. The results have so far shown that post treatment with norBNI is able to effectively counter the altered social interaction behaviors caused by a repeated social-defeat stress; moreover, the reversal of the stress-induced social interaction deficits also correlates with a reduction in anxiety-like behaviors. These data suggest that social interaction deficits are due to increased anxiety in previously benign social settings, and norBNI has the therapeutic potential to reverse these social-stress induced behavior alterations.

 Insulin secretion from the pancreatic islet β cell is required for normal glucose homeostasis. The pancreatic islet has an extensive capillary network lined by endothelial cells. These endothelial cells are known to produce factors that can enhance β cell survival and proliferation. My hypothesis is that the islet endothelial cell also produces paracrine factors that can impact β-cell secretory function. The aim of my study is to determine the time course over which secreted factors from islet endothelial cells can enhance glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) from islet β cells. To perform these studies, we first generate islet endothelial cell conditioned media (IECCM) from MS1 cells, a transformed murine islet endothelial cell line. Pancreatic islets are then exposed to IECCM for up to 48 hours, and insulin release in response to basal (2.8 mM) and stimulatory glucose levels (20 mM) is determined. We have shown that exposure of islets to IECCM for 48 hours does not alter basal insulin release, but enhances glucose-stimulated insulin release by 50%. My ongoing studies will determine whether exposure of islets to IECCM for 1, 4, 12 or 24 hours is also able to enhance glucose-stimulated insulin release. These time course experiments will form the basis for studies planned for my senior year, where we will determine whether this increase in insulin release results from increased insulin biosynthesis, or is independent of insulin production, acting for example to stimulate exocytosis of preformed insulin-containing secretory granules. These studies may uncover the existence of a novel endothelial-endocrine axis that is crucial for β-cell function. These data could lead to new targets for therapeutic drugs that promote release of endothelial factors that regulate β-cell function.

Foreign aid can be used to positively change the economic, environmental, and security realities of an individual country or region. However, the complex nature of global systems means that foreign aid can also have unintended consequences. This paper focuses on the unintended consequences of Plan Colombia for the Latin American drug trade. Plan Colombia was initiated in 1999 with the intent to disrupt the Colombian drug cartels and decrease Colombian drug production. From 2001 to 2009 drug-related killings in Mexico increased from 1,080 per year to a staggering 6,587. From 2002 to 2006, homicides in Colombia declined by 40% and kidnappings decreased by an astounding 80%. . During a similar time period, from 2001 to 2009, drug-related killings in Mexico increased from 1,080 per year to a staggering 6,587. The apparent inverse relationship of violence indicators in Colombia and Mexico suggests that a common event could have caused the change in both countries. The literature on the subject posits that Plan Colombia catalyzed the unintended shift of drug related violence from Colombia to Mexico, however these claims have not been quantitatively investigated and warrant further investigation. In my investigation of this question I analyze patterns of drug production and violence over time to test alternative hypotheses for this shift. Increased understanding of how international aid influences global systems far removed from a target country or region will enable the United States to more effectively accomplish its foreign policy goals.

Many species have been driven, or nearly driven, to extinction by overexploitation. Without a proper understanding of their complexity, we will continue disrupting ecosystems with unsustainable harvesting. For example, the concept of maximum sustainable yield places priority on maximizing harvests by ignoring most of the consequences. Resource populations are reduced to stimulate productivity without fully accounting for the effects of doing so. To what extent we can sustainably reduce resource populations. Empirical patterns in the reduction of prey populations by natural predators fully account for ecosystem complexity to inform us. We analyzed data from numerous published studies in which the population size of various prey species (marine, fresh-water and terrestrial) had been monitored before and after a predator species was either introduced or removed. The population size was compared with and without predators, to determine the extent to which resource populations are reduced by nonhuman predators. The effects of natural predation is a variable that is currently being ignored as a source of guidance in regard to population reduction, and hope that this work can contribute to more holistic decision-making in this regard. The overall objective is that of maintaining sustainable populations, ecosystems, and fisheries.

Organic matter (OM) production and decomposition is important to wetland health as it serves to cycle nutrients throughout the ecosystem. Current wetland monitoring programs in the Laurentian Great Lakes focus on structural indicators, such as fish, bird, and vegetation communities but lack the use of functional metrics such as organic matter processing. In this study we aim to create a new suite of functional indicators that focus on OM production and decomposition. Decomposition rates were measured using mesh litter bags containing dried bulrush tissue (Schoenoplectus acutus) as well as by the use of cotton strips incubated for 8 weeks at 20 coastal wetlands of Lakes Michigan and Huron. Nutrient limitation of decomposition was also measured using nutrient diffusing bags containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and a combination of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. OM production rates were measured by periphyton biomass accrual on acrylic rods over an 8-week period. In addition, nutrient diffusing substrates were deployed to test the effects of nutrient limitation on algae growth. We predicted that decomposition rates would be positively associated with higher nutrient concentrations. We also predicted that algae growth rates would be greatest on substrates containing high nutrient concentrations. When developed, functional indicators could be used alongside current structural indicators to provide a better overall assessment of wetland health.

Statistically, Asian Americans have significantly lower traffic accidents than any other minority group in the United States. However, there exists a stereotype that Asian Americans are a bigger risk on the road than any other ethnicity. This study explored the perspectives of Asian Americans, specifically Korean American women living in the city of Bellevue. Despite having enough English speaking skills to live comfortably in America, they had either a difficult time understanding roadway signs and posts, or if they did, it was not intuitive at first glance or within the time span necessary to make a decision on the road. The major problem that these Asian Americans felt was that in their homeland, many traffic decisions were made based on their instincts due to minimal roadway signs, or enforcement was so minimal that conforming to these traffic laws were not a priority to them. They reported that this mentality was reinforced more so because even when traffic laws were ignored, accident rates were low. This suggests that Asian Americans, though involved in less traffic accidents, make decisions less-rapidly, are confused on the road, or less readily conforming to traffic regulations. This study helps uncover a largely untapped field of study involving traffic safety within minority groups, and will further contribute to future research in similar topics.

Women have been steadily increasing their representation in many careers that have been traditionally male-dominated; however, women continue to be underrepresented in computer science. If women learn that their gender is underrepresented, that could lower their interest or deter them from joining because they believe they do not belong in this field. On the other hand, it could increase their interest if they feel they are wanted. This study examined whether learning about the underrepresentation of women in computer science would increase women's interest in this field. We predicted that women's interest would increase especially if they see it as an opportunity to stand out and be unique. Female students in the psychology subject pool (PSP) at the University of Washington voluntarily signed up to participate in the study. There were two conditions: in the control condition, participants were given an article that stated computer science had high demand and that less than 30% of job openings are filled by college graduates; in the underrepresentation condition, participants were given an article that stated computer science had high demand for women and that less than 30% of college degrees are earned by women. After participants read the article they answered questions about their interest in computer science. Results were statistically significant: women who were told that women are underrepresented in computer science showed more interest and belonging in the field than those who were not told. These results imply that an intervention to raise awareness of underrepresentation of women in computer science could help more females become interested and likely to join this field.

Women who are targets of a positive stereotype (i.e., women are nurturing) assume that the stereotyper also holds negative stereotypes about them (e.g., women are bad at math). The present research investigates whether being the target of a positive stereotype leads women to underperform on a math test because they fear confirming assumed negative perceptions of their group. In this study, female participants were randomly assigned to either the positive stereotype condition (i.e., “why women are generally more nurturing than men”) or the no positive stereotype condition (i.e., “why some men and women are generally more nurturing than others”). Participants then proceeded to take a math test. Results showed that women in the positive stereotype condition underperformed on the math test compared to women in the no positive stereotype condition. This study suggests that praise in the form of a positive stereotype may be counterproductive, resulting in negative consequences for people who are targets of a positive stereotype. Moreover, targets of a positive stereotype may perceive negative stereotypes as being implicitly imposed onto them. Therefore, positive stereotypes may lead women to not only underperform on a math test but also accept associated negative perceptions of their group.

‘Gaydar’ is the phenomenon by which people are able to determine a person’s sexual orientation based on mere observation. Recent research has shown that people can judge sexual orientation with above-chance accuracy from facial photographs. The present research investigated if smiling is a cue that impacts judgments of men’s sexual orientation. Smiling is associated with femininity, and as gay men are generally stereotyped as feminine, we hypothesized that a man smiling would be rated as appearing more gay (vs. straight) than a man who was not smiling. We also predicted that because smiling, a femininity cue, may be less expected on more masculine faces, the impact of smiling will be greater in straight (vs. gay) men’s faces. Participants judged the sexual orientation of a total of 64 gay and straight men’s faces with smiles or neutral facial expressions (using a scale of 1=very gay to 7=very straight). As expected, men were judged as looking more gay when smiling (vs. neutral), and this effect was greater among straight (vs. gay) men’s faces. The findings of this research suggest that subtle gender cues can be conveyed by emotional facial expressions and influence perceptions of sexual orientation.

Asian Americans respond negatively to being the target of a positive stereotype (e.g., Asians are smart) even though these stereotypes are often attempts at praising their group (Siy & Cheryan, under review). The current work focuses on how responses to positive stereotypes vary depending on the race of the person stating the positive stereotype. We hypothesize that Asian Americans will respond more positively to other Asians who state positive stereotypes about their race than Whites who state positive stereotypes about Asians, because Asians are assumed to have "cultural credentials" about their own race. In this case, cultural credentials are defined as the perception that a person has sufficient knowledge about a group to enable them to make comments about that group that outsiders cannot. In this study, Asian American participants imagined a situation in which they were positively stereotyped by either a White classmate or an Asian classmate. Results showed that participants responded more positively to the positive stereotype when the stereotyper was Asian, compared to when the stereotyper was White. Positive responses to Asians who state positive stereotypes about their own race were explained by the belief that Asian stereotypers had stronger cultural credentials. This study shows that taking the time to establish cultural credentials may be a useful strategy for times when one desires to praise a group for their accomplishments.

In Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML), adhesion of leukemia cells to the bone marrow microenvironment confers resistance to chemotherapy drugs. The receptors CXCR4 and CD44, an E-selectin ligand when properly glycosylated, have been implicated in the poor prognosis of AML. It has been shown that adhesion inhibitors restore chemotherapy sensitivity, but the E-selectin pathway has not been previously investigated. Previous data have shown that 81% of the AML patients tested showed at least 10% expression of E-selectin ligand. Hence, we proceeded to test E-selectin by utilizing antibodies to E-selectin ligand and chemokine receptor CXCR4 to block the association with stromal cell components in vitro. CFSE staining protocol was then utilized to read fluorescence intensity of cells with and without antibodies. The ability of HECA 452, antibody to E selectin ligand, and GMI, the bifunctional inhibitor to E-selectin and CXCR4, to block adhesion to stromal cell line HS27a was investigated. To further assess the interaction between E-selectin and AML cells, plates coated with E-selectin as opposed to HS27a stromal cells were utilized in the blocking assay. It was found via the use of Cell Titer Glo that HECA and GMI displayed a significantly lower luminescence compared to their respective control indicating that both antibodies were effective in preventing AML cell adhesion. We plan to continue this study by utilizing chemotherapeutic agents Cytarabine and Daunorubicin in conjunction with the antibodies to eliminate AML cells in vitro. Our research will allow us to determine how to prevent chemotherapy resistance which would make it effective in treatment of patients with Acute Myeloid Leukemia.

Helmets have been trusted to provide protection against head impacts for millennia and have become a universally promoted piece of safety equipment. Current helmet standards provided by NOCSAE, SNELL, and ASTM for football, ski, motorcycle, and other activities specify the requirements for critical impacts under varying conditions such as; temperature, impact location, and impact energy. However, most standards only minimally account for the effects of sub-critical collisions and the natural fatiguing processes experienced by a helmet during its use. Intuition suggests that these seasonal cycles and minor impacts attenuate the utility of protective headgear; however, a scientific inquiry into such effects could illuminate or invalidate this assumption. The working hypothesis of the research team under Professor Randal Ching and Irv Scher was that sub-critical impacts and seasonal cycling would diminish a helmet’s protective abilities (as measured by metrics such as peak linear acceleration and severity indices), and the goal was to illustrate that current standards and refurbishing methods need to account for these various effects of age and use. Accordingly, my research group designed a helmet drop tower to test a variety of different helmets (football, motorcycle, and ski) according to SNELL and NOCSAE standards, and used helmets were compared to their new counterparts. Direct comparisons between used and new helmets were used to evaluate the effects of age and minor impacts on helmets, the effectiveness of current standards at predicting the utility of helmets, and the expected lifetime of helmets under given conditions. As the first independent study of helmet performance in the state of Washington, this study could give vital feedback to helmet manufacturers, helmet standard foundations, and helmet users alike.

The composition and abundance of lipids preserved in lake sediments provides information on the past environment, and changes in this geochemical signal through time may be driven by climate. To understand precipitation changes in the Pacific over the last few thousand years, sediment cores have been collected from lakes on multiple islands, including Poza de Los Diablos and Pozas Verdes on Isabela Island in the Galapagos. Lipids from these sediment cores were solvent-extracted, individual compounds were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and abundances of these compounds were quantified using a gas chromatograph-flame ionization detector (GC-FID). Poza de Los Diablos data reveal elevated concentrations of both middle and long chain-length n-alkanes from approximately 1450 to 1850 AD, and indicate an enhanced contribution of material from both aquatic and terrestrial plants during this interval, which may be caused by shifting hydrologic patterns. However, these changes might also reflect a local event such as an altered flow path for surface water due to river or wave erosion. To improve our understanding of paleoenvironmental changes indicated by the Poza de los Diablos data, lipids from cores taken from nearby Pozas Verdes were also extracted and analyzed by GC-MS and GC-FID. Due to their close proximity (<1 km), any climate event that affected Posa de Los Diablo would have also affected Pozas Verdes, but with significantly different modern salinity (Diablos = 10, Verdes = 40) and ecology, each lake is likely to have responded quite differently to changing precipitation patters. By analyzing both records together we seek to improve our interpretation of the past environment.

Opiates have long been a useful tool in medicine due to their potent analgesic properties. Although there has been a significant increase in prescribed use of opioids in recent years there has also been a large increase in deaths related to prescription opioids that may involve abnormal control of ventilation. Opiate effects on ventilation have largely been considered to be due to depression of respiratory chemosensitivity (sensitivity to carbon dioxide and/or acid-base balance), but another effect may include decreased oxygen consumption and therefore decreased production of carbon dioxide. In this study, we are using a whole body plethysmograph and a respirometer to measure the rate of oxygen consumption levels in juvenile rats 18-23 days) during sleep - before and after administration of morphine at varying dosages (5mg/kg to 45mg/kg). Our initial findings show no decrease in oxygen consumption and surprisingly instead demonstrate increases up to 50% following opioid administration. These unexpected findings illustrate the need for additional investigation on possible causes of prescription opiate associated deaths. Increased oxygen consumption (and therefore increased carbon dioxide production) in the presence of drug induced decreased sensitivity to carbon dioxide may interact to lead to dangerous compromises in the control of ventilation in patients taking a broad range of opiates doses in the community.

There are currently very few effective treatments to repair damage resulting from spinal cord injury (SCI). The project I have been working on in the Moritz Lab involves the exploration of Intraspinal Microstimulation (ISMS) and its ability to promote functional recovery after SCI in a rodent animal model. Our group employs a unilateral incomplete spinal cord contusion injury using the Ohio State University contusion device at the level of the fourth lamina in the cervical spine, or C4. We then place stimulating wires in the spinal cord, specifically in the ventral gray matter caudal to the injury at C6-C8, in order to deliver ISMS to the motor pools innervating the triceps and other forelimb muscles. My independent project in the lab is a histological analysis of triceps and forelimb muscles taken from the SCI models to determine whether the use of ISMS preferentially recruits fatigue resistant (FR) muscle fibers in the affected forelimb of these rats. After paresis resulting from SCI, muscles atrophy and undergo a "slow-to-fast" transition in the myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform content. My goal is to examine whether ISMS can slow or even reverse this slow-to-fast conversion after SCI. I am using immunohistochemistry to differentiate muscle fiber types in the triceps muscle. I stain for the unique MHC isoform that is expressed by the various slow and fast type fibers. My hypothesis is that there will be a higher population of type I and type IIA FR fibers in the stimulated muscles of ISMS group than in the control group, which will mostly consist of fast fatigable types IIB and type IID. The long-term goal of my project is to determine the benefits of using ISMS as a neural prosthesis and regenerative therapy for individuals who have suffered from spinal cord contusion injuries.

Dugesia tigrina, commonly known as planaria, have a primitive, yet bilaterally symmetrical centralized nervous system and utilize many of the same neurotransmitters as humans. This allows us to use planaria to study the mechanisms of drug action and the effect of compounds on behavior in a relatively inexpensive in vivo model. Our lab explored the effects of over-the-counter commonly abused drugs on planaria activity, including seizure-like behavior, signs of withdrawal or habituation, or place conditioning. We have found that dextromethorphan (DXM), a cough suppressant contained in most over-the-counter cough medicines, increases seizure-like behaviors and reduces motility in a dose dependent manner.  DXM also has effects on place conditioning and withdrawal. DXM is thought as a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist, so it can also be compared to the behavioral effects of DXM to that of NMDA stimulation. 

The formation of amyloid ß (Aß) plaques, resulting from the inappropriate aggregation of the protein beta-amyloid, is a major pathology associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). One potential therapy for Alzheimer's disease is to reduce cerebral Aß plaque deposition through stem cell therapies. We hypothesize that myeloablative therapy, using lethal irradiation, as well as non-myeloablative bone marrow transplantation, using non-lethal irradiation, will result in a reduction in Aß plaque accumulation in the cerebrum. To test the therapeutic potential of myeloablative and non-myeloablative bone marrow transplantation, we transplanted bone marrow into either lethally irradiated AD (APPswePSIdeltae9) mouse model recipients (myeloablative therapy) or non-lethally irradiated AD mouse model recipients (non-myeloablative therapy). The number of plaques present and the total plaque area are quantified using ImageJ software. Initial immunofluorescence quantification has shown that non-myeloablative bone marrow transplantation reduces total Aß plaque area in the cortex by 33% when compared to non-treatment controls. To further assess the therapeutic potential of both myeloablative and non-myeloablative bone marrow transplantation therapies, additional immunofluorescence, as well as immunohistochemistry, quantification of Aß plaque deposition will be performed. These preliminary results suggest non-myeloablative bone marrow transplantation is a potentially effective stem cell therapy in treating an Alzheimer's related pathology.

The purpose of this study was to examine how students from different backgrounds and ethnic groups experience UW-River Falls. Previous studies, including the Campus Climate Survey (surveying all faculty, staff, and students in 2009), have shown that white students may experience fewer incidents of discrimination or bias as compared to students of color. While the Campus Climate survey gave us a broad understanding of differential experiences on campus, we felt it was important to dig deeper into students’ beliefs and experiences. In addition to asking about experiences of discrimination on campus more generally and with professors, we also asked about a variety of other issues: GPA and time spent studying, perceptions of their own intelligence, levels of self esteem and ethnic identification, and background experiences (among many other questions). Our survey was based on a much larger survey of UCLA students (Sidanius, Levin, van Laar, & Sears, 2008) that was modified to fit UW-River Falls. The survey was administered to over 293 students from across campus in classes, student organization meetings, and special sessions set up to collect data (General Psychology Participant Pool). Our results indicated that students of color had lower GPA’s and felt less smart than white students but they also reported studying more on average. Students of color reported lower Self Esteem but higher ethnic identification than whites and they perceived UW-River Falls as less diverse than whites. Students of color reported more experiences of discrimination on campus as well as more biased professors. Finally, among students of color it seems that ethnic identification may have a somewhat protective effect. Higher levels of ethnic identification were correlated with higher self esteem, but also with greater perceptions of campus and professor bias.

DNA benefits from a system of self-maintenance, containing genes that code for the repair of its damage. The base-excision repair pathway serves as the primary means of preventing mutations attributed to oxidative stress, such as 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), within both the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Initiated by the 8-oxogunine DNA glycosylase (OGG1), the removal of 8-oxoG is known to prevent genomic instability and neoplasia. The current study presents new data indicating a role for OGG1 in the maintenance of energy homeostasis at both cellular and whole-body levels. Oxidative stress introduced via high-fat diet (HFD) yielded increased adiposity and hepatic steatosis within the OGG1 knockout (OGG1-/-) mouse model. The HFD-fed OGG1-/- mice were also prone to increased levels of plasma insulin and impaired glucose tolerance. The same mice exhibited a higher resting VCO₂, indicating a preference for carbohydrate metabolism versus fat oxidation. Analysis of expression levels in the livers of OGG1-/- mice revealed significant downregulation of the metabolism-regulating transcriptional coactivator PGC1 and other genes integral to fatty acid oxidation. Consistent with a reduction in PGC1a, multiple genes involved in the TCA cycle were significantly downregulated. Also noted was a reduction in glycogen stores within the OGG1-/- livers, and fasting plasma ketones were significantly reduced. We conclude that OGG1 deficiency alters cellular substrate metabolism, fosters a fat-sparing phenotype, and renders the OGG1-/- mouse highly susceptible to obesity and related diseases. An understanding of OGG1 and its role in energy homeostasis will contribute to the direction of research within the realm of disease initiation due to oxidative stress.

Recovery after severe skeletal muscle crush injury is a major research focus, especially for the armed forces and after major natural disasters. Evaluation of statistics in major American wars displays astonishing numbers of severely injured soldiers, many of them undergoing amputations of major limbs. Much of the research has focused on recovery from exercise-induced muscle injury but little is known about crush injury-induced recovery pattern. Cytokines such as interleukins and tumor-necrosis factors recruit immune cells to the site of injury to clear cell debris, repair cell injury, and stimulate the growth of satellite cells. The time course for the expression of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha is not well characterized in injured skeletal muscle of mice. The purpose of our investigation is to develop a crush injury animal model to study the expression pattern of these proinflammatory cytokines in the recovery process following crush injury. In our experiments, RNA was extracted and reverse transcribed into cDNA from the right gastrocnemius of injured mice for qPCR to determine the expression levels of IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha at 0, 4, 8, 24, 48 and 72 hours post injury. From preliminary data, we see a linear increase in TNF-alpha expression from 0 to 24 hours, and a rapid increase in IL-1beta and IL-6 with a linear decrease over the following 4-24 hour time points. Analysis of later time points is ongoing. This work provides a baseline in preparation of treatment trials to study the healing process and related cytokine production following injury. By understanding the time course and functions of these cytokines and how they interact, we can contribute to the scientific foundation for evaluating the effectiveness of therapies used in managing wounded soldiers.

The purpose of this study is to determine how contemporary American society and its military view the concept of dying and how one is able to have “a good death.” For primary sources, I use Medal of Honor citations, letters home, newspaper obituaries and articles. Preliminary results have shown that the best way one could die was in the action of saving another’s life. Medal of Honor citations alone have indicated this. Of the 258 Medals of Honor, which have been awarded, often posthumously, since the start of the Vietnam War, 56% have been awarded for actions that demonstrated self-sacrifice for others. In the conflicts after Vietnam the proportion of Medal of Honor citations in regard to self-sacrifice have risen: of the 12 Medals of Honor that have been awarded, self-sacrifice made up 75% of the citations. I expect to find more corroborating evidence as I continue my research. It is hoped that information gleaned from this research will help mental health professionals better treat veterans by assuaging any potential survivor’s guilt that military personnel may possess.

Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) is one of the most common types of non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma with a 50.4% five-year survival rate.  Previous work has shown that some patients with aggressive DLBCL have increased expression of the transcription factor NF-kß, which can alter normal growth and function of B-lymphocytes.  Interestingly, a protein upstream of NF-kß in the B-Cell Receptor Pathway called PKCß is found to be highly activated in many DLBCL cases, suggesting that PKCß overexpression may be altering the lifecycle of those with DLBCL.  Therefore, PKCß may be a significant new target for therapy.  We designed a transgenic mouse expressing a dominant active form of PKCß expressed only in B-cells (Rosa26 DAPKCß XCD19-Cre).  With this model, we measured differences in B-cell  germinal center development and in antibody responses between WT and DA PKCß-Cre mice immunized with T-dependent antigen NP-CGG.  We hypothesized that DA PKCß-Cre mice may have an increased response compared to WT because of its dominant active form of PKCß, which leads to increased NF-kß and hyper-activation of the responding B-cells.  Thus, we used ELISA and ELISPOT assays to quantify the expressed antibodies and immunohistochemistry to analyze the architecture of the spleen.  Immunohistochemistry has shown that the immunized DA PKCß-Cre mice have slightly larger germinal centers than WT mice, although not statistically significant.  Immunized DA PKCß-Cre mice show no difference in serum antibody levels by ELISA, but have slightly increased numbers of anitbody producing cells by ELISPOT.  Overall, the data suggests that over expression of PKCß in B-cells results in a hyper-proliferative phenotype, but does not strongly alter the antibody response to the T-dependent antigen NP-CGG.  Since we saw a difference in mice immunized with Pertussis, which stimulates the Toll-like Receptor (TLR) Pathway, we will look at different responses of TLR ligands in vivo and in vitro.

Curiously, Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) thrives on the rocky riverbanks of Washington under nutrient-poor conditions few other species dare tolerate. Their prosperous lives could be the result of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that inhabit the tree's stems and roots. It is the hypothesis that these endophytic bacteria provide trees with organic nitrogen throughout their lives, where the river side substrate fails to provide sufficient nitrogen for the Poplar to otherwise live. Wild Black Cottonwood seeds were collected from Three Forks Park along the Snoqualmie River in Washington then grown in greenhouses. Endophytes were isolated from these trees and tested for the presence of the nitrogenase gene (nifH) using PCR. The nitrogenase proteins equip bacteria to fix atmospheric nitrogen into forms plants can readily use. Understanding the life cycles, inoculation techniques and genetic make-ups of these bacteria enable us not only to grasp a little better the diversity of life, but to think beyond Black Cottonwoods, to how these bacteria could be recruited to be used on crops and degraded fields. Nitrogen is necessary for plants and often a growth limiting factor; harnessing these nitrogen-providers may help reduce our dependency of energy-intensive industrial ammonia.

Research on Dugesia tigrina, a species of planaria, has drastically increased over the last decade. Planaria are non-parasitic flatworms that have a primitive, bilaterally symmetrical central nervous system and utilize many of the same neurotransmitters as humans. This makes them a model organism to study drug effects and drug actions on the nervous system. Our lab studies some of the most commonly abused over-the-counter drugs and looks at the behavioral responses of planaria. Our lab has found that Dextrometorphan induces “C” like seizures and screw-like hyperkinesias. I have extended out analysis to look at  Salvia divinorum, an abused drug that can cause hallucinations. Comparing to our previous work with Dextromethorphan, I have found that Salvinorin A, the active component of Salvia divinorum, causes similar and different effects on planaria behavior and motility. This poster reports this comparative analysis. 

A continuous measurement of wall shear stress can be achieved using shear sensitive liquid crystal coatings (SSLCC). Utilizing thin films of polymer-embedded birefringent liquid crystals as sensors, they deform elastically when subjected to shear stresses. The light passing through the SSLCC is recorded with a charge-coupled device camera and is processed by the specialized birefringence detecting Milliview. Shear magnitude and direction are determined from the results. A single coating comprises of polymers, solvents, and liquid crystals in varying proportions. When applied to a surface, solvents vaporize, leaving liquid crysals embedded inside polymer structures. By adjusting the proportions of the components, the viscosity and curing rate of the coatings can be controlled to match the method of application. A series of formulations were applied to a flat, glass substrate using methods such as airbrushing and direct deposition. Each combination was tested repeatedly at free-stream speeds ranging from 5 m/s to 36 m/s. The best coatings were determined by optical clarity, surface smoothness, signal strength, and reusability both through visual observation and testing in a small wind tunnel. Few combinations yielded both a high signal strength and reusability.

Paraeducators are increasingly becoming a key component in special education. As class sizes increase, schools are hiring paraeducators to work with students with disabilities.  However, qualifications and training of paraeducators are minimal in most states. In Vermont, only 30% of jobs specifically required previous experience working with children. The majority of states have no educational requirements for paraeducators beyond a high school diploma. Typically, paraeducators do not receive much training besides an orientation to school policies and special education teachers do not usually help paraeducators understand IEP (individualized education plan) goals. Unfortunately, these kinds of practices lead to turnover rates that can be as high as 50% for recent hires. High turnover rates are costly to the school district, impede cooperation between IEP team members, and negatively impact student learning. A review of recent research pertaining to paraeducator training and instructional strategies for working with students with special needs led to the development of this toolkit. The purpose of this toolkit is to support paraeducators and classroom volunteers who are working with students with a variety of special needs in many different classroom settings. This toolkit provides information about specific disabilities, instructional strategies, background information on special education, and further resources. Particular emphasis was placed on special education in Washington State. There are more paraeducators in the United States than there are special educators—under IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act), trained paraeducators are allowed to provide special education instruction. However, most paraeducators get little to no training and a great deal of responsibility for students vulnerable to academic failure or stagnation. This toolkit was designed in the hopes that, as a free resource, it could provide much needed background information to paraeducators and classroom volunteers.

Increasing the efficiency of biofuel production is critical to decrease the dependence and consumption of fossil fuels. In the United States, most car fuel contains about 10% ethanol, the result of fermentation, and 90% gasoline. The process of fermenting sugars into ethanol relies on agricultural stocks, decreasing the area of arable land available for food production. Non-agricultural plant species can be used, but the lignocellulose material from the total plant contains both five and six carbon sugars. Baker’s Yeast can ferment the six carbon sugars, but a novel yeast species is necessary to ferment the five carbon sugars. The goal of my research is to isolate and identify wild yeast species growing in non-agricultural plants that ferment five carbon sugars, such as xylose, into a usable product; xylitol in this case. Xylitol can be sold as an artificial sweetener to subsidize the overall costs of biofuel production, or alternatively, may be converted to ethanol through biochemical pathways that some yeast species have. After attempting to grow yeast from nine different plant species growing in Pack Forest with xylose as their only carbon source, one yeast species from red alder, Alnus rubra, exhibited growth. The other eight species did not show significant growth compared to controls: common Baker's Yeast and PTD3, a previously isolated yeast. Further research of these yeasts was not pursued. Next, AR (for Alnus rubra), was tested for xylitol production. First, AR was grown in a medium with xylose as its sole source of sugar. By placing the growth culture in an air-tight flask, any xylitol production would be prevented from evaporating, making it measurable with a high-performance liquid chromatography machine. The yeast isolated from red alder successfully fermented xylose into xylitol, making it a potential source of efficient biofuel production.

Adolescent use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs is on the rise in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control's (CDC) annual National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (NYRBS), nearly fifty percent of all teens have smoked cigarettes at some point and nearly seventy-five percent have tried alcohol. Research has established several factors known to put adolescents at risk for negative behaviors, including family problems, socioeconomic status, and lack of parental supervision. However, fewer studies have examined what factors prevent at-risk adolescent populations from using alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs. Many potential factors have been identified as buffers for at-risk adolescent populations; some these are creativity, service learning, and community involvement. But research investigating these factors is still limited in scope. The present study examines relationships between protective factors and risky health behaviors of at-risk adolescents. First, we pilot-tested our measures on emerging adult college students and found that students who reported higher levels of family cohesion reported lower levels of cigarette use, illicit substance use, and drunk driving. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the higher the level of reported creativity, the more students reported illegal drug use. Based on our preliminary findings, we are revising our survey and plan to survey adolescents at a Boise, Idaho community center about their use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs using the NYRBS. In addition, factors thought to serve as buffers against these risky health behaviors, including the five characteristics of Positive Youth Development, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring using the Positive Youth Development Inventory (PYDI). We hypothesize that adolescents who possess these five characteristics will be less likely to engage in risky behaviors. We will test this hypothesis using Pearson's r correlations. Using our research findings, we hope to suggest future prevention program offerings to the community center.

The Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) is listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA) due to small population size, and limited breeding range. The Short-tailed Albatross (STAL) breeds on Torishima and Minami-kojima Islands off Japan and migrates to Alaskan waters during the summer. The NOAA Alaska Fisheries Science Center’s Observer Program, in collaboration with the USFWS, instructs observers to carry out seabird monitoring activities in addition to their recording of bycatch during fishing operations. Using Observer Program seabird sightings and vessel-bird interaction data from 1993-2009, we examined potential vessel interaction threats to the recovery of the population, as well as the frequency and geographic expansion of Short-tailed Albatross sightings. Our data indicate that Short-tailed Albatross sightings increased more than the Short-tailed Albatross population during this time period (6.5% population growth per year), with observer days remaining relatively stable. We also found that incidences of discard feeding and/or vessel following are not increasing disproportionately to population size as the population continues to grow, thus it is unlikely that vessel interactions threaten the STAL population recovery. Lastly, we found that the sightings of Short-tailed Albatross show an eastward expansion since 1993, thus suggesting an expansion of this species within their historic range.

With global temperature predicted to increase by 1-6 degrees C by 2100, the question of how species will adapt to such a rapidly changing environment is becoming increasingly urgent. Some of the most widely observed responses to climate change have been changes in phenology, or the timing of life-history events such as the timing of migration, flowering, or mating. These apparent adaptations may be the result of genetic evolution or plasticity, and while both can prevent a species from extirpation during rapid environmental shifts, they vary markedly in their long-term effects on population viability. The Pacific salmon, Oncorhynchus, are one group of organisms whose survival is intimately linked to climate conditions. Because salmon die after they spawn, their entire life cycle depends on the success of one spawning season, which in turn depends on their ability to migrate up rivers to spawn during months favorable to their survival. Even small increases in water temperature and flow rates can greatly increase pre-spawning mortality for these fish. Using existing knowledge of Chinook life-history and fine-scale climate projections for the Columbia River Basin, together with an eco-evolutionary model, we assess the potential for Chinook salmon to shift their migration timing to adapt to future climate change. We hypothesize that Chinook are likely to have the evolutionary potential to allow them to avoid spawning during the warmest times on a long-term scale. While this is reassuring for the survival of pacific salmon, in general the extent of adaptability will depend on the life-history of the organism of interest.

The effects of temperature and salinity on growth rates and toxicities of a dinoflagellate species in the genus Alexandrium will be determined. Species of Alexandrium can produce a suite of dangerous neurotoxins, the most potent being saxitoxin, that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning in humans if contaminated shellfish are consumed. These potentially lethal toxins are dangerous to humans and marine mammals alike. Toxins accumulate in both wild and farmed shellfish during a harmful algal bloom (HAB), and can result in shellfish harvesting closures causing economic losses to commercial shellfish growers. Climate change scenarios project increased freshwater input to the Puget Sound region (causing decreased salinity) and warming of surface waters. These changes were simulated in the laboratory using a temperature gradient bar – a cell culturing apparatus designed to facilitate cell growth over a range of uniformly distributed temperatures (5-28°C) and salinities (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 ppt). Nutrient concentrations in the culture media is locally relevant and light is on a 12:12 h light:dark cycle. These experiments will be conducted for two Puget Sound isolates of Alexandrium collected in 2010 – one from Cypress Island in the north and one from Quartermaster Harbor in the south. Preliminary results for the northern Puget Sound isolate indicate zero to low growth at all temperatures for the 15 ppt salinity treatment, while greatest growth occurred between 15°C and 22°C in the 20 and 25 ppt salinity treatments. Toxin analyses are yet to be performed. The growth and toxicity response surfaces generated from this study will be used in a model to assess potential range and timing of future blooms under projected climate change scenarios.

Currently, southern resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) comprise a population of eighty-seven individuals. It is believed that disturbance by vessels may affect key behaviors and mask echolocation, which is critical for foraging and communication. Within the Puget Sound, Southern Residents are exposed routinely to commercial whale watching, and vessel interaction has been listed as a contributing factor to their endangered status. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are currently implementing vessel guidelines to decrease anthropogenic influences on this population. Beginning in summer 2011 these federal laws came into affect. Understanding boater behavior on the water is essential for federal enforcement and revision of current laws. By working with Soundwatch, an organization that has been documenting vessel interactions for 18 years, I assisted in data collection, entry, and analyzing boater density and trends. In the summer of 2011 2,500 incidents were observed including violations of federal law and voluntary guidelines. The top incidents that were observed were being within 200 yards of a whale, being inshore of whales, and parking in their path. On average 12 vessels were surrounding this population on a daily basis, with the majority being whale watch boats. Private vessels, generally due to their irregularity on the water, do not generally know about the new federal law or guidelines. Resulting in private boats accounting for 58% of the observed incidents. In addition to assisting with data gathering and analyzing I will compare the 2011 results to 2010 report. Providing a summary of themes observed on the water and future recommendations for federal law revision. Moving forward it will be critical to enforce current laws, and understand the dynamics between vessels and whales. My project will provide a succinct summary of 2011 trends and compare them with previously observed boater interactions.

Muscle contraction begins when Ca2+ binds to sTnC, which removes the inhibition of myosin binding to actin, allowing force development or shortening. Our laboratory has engineered sTnC variants with differential Ca2+ binding affinities to investigate how it affects healthy and diseased muscle. Chief among these variants are I60Q and M80Q, which have lower and higher Ca2+ binding affinities than the native protein, respectively. Expression of these variants in diseased or damaged muscle as a therapeutic treatment will be accomplished by viral transduction with cDNA. This method does not achieve 100% replacement of the native protein. Thus, my project is to determine the minimum variant level that needs to be replaced to have a signficant effect on contraction to help design treatment studies. Replacing native sTnC with I60Q or M80Q is also expected to gradually produce reduced or greater contraction when exposed to higher [Ca2+] prior to sTnC extraction and following reconstitution with variant:WT mixtures to determine force outputs. pCa50 is compared between pre-extraction, and reconstitution. Variants used in this study also contained polyhistidine tags, allowing us to quantify the amount of reconstitued protein incorporated into the fiber. These data show us the the effect of a particular reconstitution ratio and the amount of protein necessary to produce this effect. My preliminary data suggest that there is a progressive effect of increasing I60Q in muscle fibers to reduce the calcium sensitivity of force, thus reducing contractile strength. This variant may therefore be effective in reducing contraction in muscular dystrophy, thus maintaining muscle integrity and function.

 Myocardial infarction, heart failure, and congenitive heart disease are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. However, current cell therapies remain inadequate in addressing this clear medical need. One of the primary obstacles limiting the success of cell therapies is that stem cell derived cardiomyocytes (SCDCM’s) tend to be functionally immature, providing only a small fraction of the force generation of their matured counterparts. Thus, the work here focuses on developing a growth platform which incorporates topographical and mechanical properties in order to rapidly and thoroughly mature SCDCM’s. The field of tissue engineering is becoming increasingly aware of the roll that the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays in driving cellular differentiation and behavior, and the importance this has on the design of biomimetic scaffolds and growth platforms. A study of the native cardiac environment has revealed that the presence of aligned nanoscale matrix fibers plays a key role in establishing organization within the myocardium. This insight has allowed us to construct polymeric scaffolds which mimic the in vivo ECM, greatly improving cardiac culture techniques. There exists an optimal feature size and configuration at which nanogrooved topography is successful in promoting anisotropic alignment and elongation of cardiomyocytes, an increased action potential conduction velocity, and the substantial expression of cell-cell coupling proteins. Our current focus rests on understanding the way in which mechanical and chemical variations to the growth substrate can affect cell morphology and contractile properties when manipulated in conjunction with nanoscale topographical stimulation. This research will provide a strong foothold towards the development of a cardiac patch, which, implanted directly onto the infarct surface of the heart, could reduce scar tissue formation, promote healing and angiogenesis, and provide crucial contractile and mechanical strength.

Cell transplantation has been shown to improve cardiac function following myocardial infarction (MI). The mechanisms behind improved function are not well-understood, but are correlated with changes in myofilament protein phosphorylation, which likely affect Ca2+- and length-dependent (preload) changes in force. This project was designed to test the hypotheses that 1) responsiveness to ventricular filling (Frank-Starling relationship) will decrease following MI, and 2) neonatal rat cardiomyocyte (NRC) transplantation after infarction will ameliorate this loss of function. One week after induction of MI, fluorescently-labeled NRCs were injected into the area of infarction of some of the animals. Sham-operated rats served as control. After 4-6 weeks, cardiac performance for all groups was preliminarily assessed using echocardiography. Then, whole working heart preparations were used measure cardiac power output, testing the heart’s ability to follow the Frank-Starling relationship. NRC-injected hearts exhibited higher average power and response to ventricular filling than sham (media-only) injected hearts, indicating that NRC-engraftment significantly ameliorates MI-induced decreases in preload responsiveness. Force and Ca2+ sensitivity (pCa50) of demembranated myocardial strips from these hearts were then assessed. NRC-injected hearts strips had a sarcomere length associated change in pCa50 that was similar to uninfarcted hearts (0.07 ± .02 vs. 0.10 ± .03, respectively), which was significantly improved as compared to strips from untreated, infarcted animals (0.0 ± .03). These results indicate that loss of preload dependence following MI is, at least in part, due to altered myofilament function and this is reversed following NRC engraftment. Current work involves investigating myofilament phosphorylation profiles to assess the mechanism of myocardial function changes. Preliminary results show decreased phosphorylation levels of cardiac troponin T (cTnT) in NRC-injected hearts compared to sham-operated and infarcted hearts. These changes in phosphorylation may be associated with the changes in force production following cell therapy.

In recent years, increasing numbers of single amino acid mutations in cardiac troponin C (cTnC) have been identified in patients with cardiomyopathies. The troponin protein complex regulates cardiac muscle, as Ca2+ binding to cTnC initiates contraction. Previous studies of the mutations associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) patients show increased Ca2+ sensitivity and of those with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) patients, decreased Ca2+ sensitivity. However, it is still unclear how a change in Ca2+ signaling might precipitate the disease, and unknown why a myofilament protein variant affects the Ca2+ transient, which is regulated by calcium handling proteins. This project focuses on the I61Q cTnC variant, which previous studies have shown decreases fraction shortening (produce weaker contractions) and Ca2+ binding of myofilaments. Determining how or if abundance and activity of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) proteins vary will shed light on the mechanism behind the change in Ca2+ transient. All cardiomyocytes were isolated from healthy adult rats and transfected by adenoviruses containing the I61Q gene. Transduced cardiomyocytes were cultured for 48 hours. Then, Western blotting determined abundance of Ca2+ handling proteins in the SR, such as phospholamban and SERCA-2.  SDS-Page gels were used to determine protein phosphorylation. Using imaging software to analyze the bands in the gel will result in a quantitative comparison of protein abundance and phosphorylation. The difference in protein expression and regulation provide insights for understanding the mechanism behind the change in Ca2+ sensitivity, and potentially allow I61Q to be delivered through gene therapy in patients with HCM to restore normal Ca2+ sensitivity. Past contractile measurements were performed at 25°C, but since the heart normally operates at 37°C, future experiments will be performed at this temperature for transduced cardiomyocytes. Contractions will be induced by electrical stimulation so that cell lengths, rates of sarcomere contraction/relaxation, and Ca2+ transients can be measured simultaneously using IonOptix video microscopy.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a degenerative disease leading to fatal respiratory and cardiac complications. It is caused by loss of functional dystrophin through mutation of the dystrophin gene. Possible treatments could use Adeno-associated virus (AAV) to introduce genes into muscle cells. This strategy requires muscle specific regulatory cassettes containing sequences specific for transcribing the therapeutic gene in muscle cells. My studies seek to increase the activity of one such cassette, MHCK7. Since AAV vectors can package only ~5000 basepairs of DNA, the dystrophin cDNA and regulatory cassette must be miniaturized. I am modifying MHCK7 by adding a 95 bp intronic enhancer (SIE) from the muscle creatine kinase (MCK) gene that is important for MCK expression in slow muscle fibers and cardiac muscle. The SIE has been placed ~1kb 3’ of the MHCK7 luciferase reporter cDNA to mimic its endogenous genomic location. SIE addition was performed by introducing a HindIII site 3’ of the luciferase polyA sequence by site directed mutagenesis, and the subsequent opening of DNA at that site. The SIE was transferred from a previously made plasmid and ligated into the opened MHCK7. Restriction digests and gel electrophoresis were used to assess successful introduction of HindIII and to confirm digests for opening the DNA and isolating the SIE. New recombinant MHCK7-3’-SIE will be transfected into skeletal and cardiac muscle cultures, and its activity will be assessed through luciferase activity. The SIE’s contribution to expression will be compared to that of the original MHCK7 plasmid as well as to MHCK7 with the SIE located immediately 5’ of the cassette. If the new regulatory cassette is more active than MHCK7 and 5’-SIE-MHCK7, further studies will test the cassette in conjunction with a microdystrophin cDNA. If activity is not increased, I will test alternative locations of the SIE.

Current network frameworks that are in widespread use today are insufficient for protecting sensitive data, and cybercrime activities are continuing to rise at alarming rates. By adopting new network framework designs into current computing infrastructure, we need to offer users a more safe and secure infrastructure by which to handle sensitive information and data, while not limiting their ability to be productive. For this purpose, we show how a private cloud can be highly assured by integrating the current network infrastructure with the High Assurance Platform (HAP) framework. The National Security Agency proposed the HAP framework in order to provide a high security environment in which to conduct day-to-day computing activities by utilizing a mix of commercially available virtualization and network security technologies. By integrating a private cloud for an academic computing environment with the HAP framework, we can demonstrate how a high assurance private cloud can be designed and implemented. We plan to create a private cloud in a university computer lab using computing resources that are currently in use or available to the general public. This high assurance private cloud allows students to conduct day-to-day academic activities in the freedom of a low assurance environment, by offering low restriction access to common resources such as email, web browsing, and file sharing across an internal network. At the same time, students will have access to a high assurance environment in order to reference confidential or sensitive information. Through the use of virtualization technology and network security technology, sensitive information can be better protected than what is commonly seen today in our academic computing environment and students still have the freedom to perform daily computing activities quickly and efficiently.

The world of computing has made major migrations into cloud computing. More and more enterprises, both big and small, begin to rapidly relocate their infrastructure to the cloud both internally, and externally. Virtualization has also become a key component to this migration and is often times inseparable from a particular application of a cloud computing solution. This major jump can be readily seen from major technology industry heavyweights such as Microsoft, Google, and Amazon. It is important to note that this migration to cloud computing is not only taking place externally as companies seek to provide cloud services for clients and consumers, but also taking place as companies and organizations move their internal infrastructure operations to the cloud, particularly, with a virtualized infrastructure as a service (VIaaS). Deploying a VIaaS provides cost effective and convenient solutions to companies and organizations that do not desire the rigors of managing and maintaining their infrastructure by way of physical locations. However, with the utilization of VIaaS, comes a host of concerns from an information assurance standpoint.We propose a scenario in which a simulated small business has moved their infrastructure to the cloud through a VIaaS. Specifically, two common servers in a given network, web and email, are used for testing and evaluation process in which an iterated approach is used after initial installation and configuration. Based upon our experiments using VIaaS, we will address and analyze the configuration and security issues that arise when employing a VIaaS. Since VIaaS can be different for each business, general best practice guidelines are proposed for developing the infrastructure.

Using the Internet is leaving tremendous amount of the identity information about the person who accessed. Perhaps it may not be an issue if this information were not used against this person. However, this is a wrong impression of anonymity of the online users who have formed by the users themselves trying to achieve Internet anonymity to ensure privacy. Most of the time the users are not aware of two types of information that can be gathered online: the information that software is gathering from the users and the information that every person leaves about himself, or herself. My research includes reviewing of the United States and Washington state cyber-crime law, developing a new model of cyber-crime investigation procedure and suspect’s profiling, mapping modern techniques of revealing the Internet identity, and developing a prototype of a software application Cyber Bounty Hunter with usage of Python and C++ programming languages. I created Cyber Bounty Hunter as all-in-one tool for tracing suspects via IP-address, HTTP cookies, flash cookies, tracking bugs, HTTP referrer, TCP protocol, browser plugins, search engine's queries, social networks and so on. All of these tools and options can be used in cyber-crime scene investigation applying to tracking of suspects and fugitives, analysis of crime profiler and suspects’ identity. Cyber technologies opened up new possibilities in tracking. Generally, Cyber Bounty Hunter application software deploys cyber-espionage techniques and is capable of tracking and profiling suspects such as professional hackers, thefts, cyber-stalkers, cyber pedophiles, electronic terrorists and vandals.

A modern computer control system contains mainly four parts, a process (e.g., a water tank where the water temperature is adjustable), an actuator (e.g., a heater to warm up the water), a sensor (e.g., the thermometer to get the real temperature of the water), and the controller. The controller compares the set-point of the interested signal (e.g., the water temperature) with the real measurement from the sensor, hence closed control loop; it also computes the adjustment signal and sends it to the process actuator so that the process will generate an output as close as possible to the set-point. Traditional computer control systems use wired sensors and actuators and have served well in the past century. With the development of wireless sensors and wireless communication technologies, there is a trend to make wireless a viable replacement for hard-wired control, due to low cost, mobility and ability to operate in a harsh or ultra clean environment. However, challenging issues arise; one of them is reliability, which will be investigated in our research. We use a water tank temperature control system as the test-bed; the controller is the MCF52233DEMO ColdFire board with a Real Time Operating System (RTOS) kernel; the control algorithm is the widely applied Proportional Integral Derivative (PID); and the wireless standard is the IEEE 802.11b (Wi-Fi). By comparing the performance between the hard-wired control system and the wireless control system using the same PID controller, we expect to see poor performance of the wireless control system due to wireless network issues such as packet loss, time delays, and so on. We will modify the classical PID algorithm for wireless control so that similar performance to hard-wired control could be achieved. In the future, we will investigate the co-design of communication protocols and control strategies for wireless control systems.

Information technology is changing at an exponential rate. The advent of cloud computing allows small businesses to take advantages of technological services that reduce the cost of their capital expenses. The Software as a Service (SaaS), which is the top layer of cloud computing, is taking the helm in this technology era for small businesses that cannot afford initial capital expenses for their businesses. Now software can be rented as a service instead of being purchased as an application package. The first purpose of our research is to demonstrate how cloud computing can be beneficial to the small businesses: we discover a need for photographers who are small business owners and have limited revenue for the commercialization of their products and services. To sell their photos via the internet, photographers are using other storefronts to sell. Our cloud based shopping cart allows photographers to create their accounts and sell their own photos; thereby, saving on cost and expenses. The second purpose of our research is to demonstrate how an agile software development methodology, Scrum, can be beneficial to the SaaS providers: we as the service providers manage the cloud-based shopping cart development project for photographers by using Scrum. The use of the agile methodology helps us to timely respond the changes of user requirements and the deliveries of the service components in a cloud environment.

Beginning level programmers have learned basic programming concepts and skills without considering security at the beginning. However, the broad adoption of the Internet technologies allowed more software applications to be connected and vulnerable to attacks. It has become more important for beginning level programmers to learn coding with a security perspective in order to avoid bad coding habits. For this purpose, we introduce threat model to beginning level programmers, while they are studying programming fundamentals and examine how the threat model can create a paradigm of higher assurance when the beginning level programmers develop programs with the threat model. We conduct two programming assignments in a course for beginning level programmers without or with the threat models, respectively. Through the threat modeling, we create Data Flow Diagrams to check security trust boundaries and analyze the diagrams to countermeasure vulnerabilities of the programs. The number of vulnerabilities in the source code and the time for implementing the threat modeling are compared and analyzed. Regardless of the longer time for the threat modeling implementation, the early adoption of the threat model allows the beginning level programmers to discuss and expand ideas from the data flow diagram, help them to understand security trust boundaries better, categorize threats with computer security threat classifications, and make their code more secure.

There is a dearth of evidence-based parenting programs for caregivers of teens in the child welfare system. This is especially troubling considering the increased challenges facing foster teens including early initiation of sexual activity, and higher incidence of drug use, and school drop out. The current research project is an effort to help fill this resource gap through adapting Staying Connected with Your Teen, an evidence-based parenting program originally designed for use with families not involved in the Child Welfare System. Previous research demonstrates the original program’s effectiveness in reducing risky sexual behavior, substance use, and violence among teens. The current adaptation research is guided by the ADAPT-ITT model, originally developed to balance the needs of cultural adaptation with implementation fidelity for efficacious HIV interventions. Building off of the previous research on Staying Connected through utilization of the ADAPT-ITT model, focus groups were held to determine necessary program adaptations. I worked with other researchers to organize and facilitate 9 focus groups (n=9) in two Washington Children’s Administration (CA) regions: 3 each with former foster youth aged 18-21 (n=20), foster caregivers (n=16), and CA staff (n=27). Using a conventional content analysis approach, I worked with other researchers to identify codes and primary themes in the focus group transcripts. The dominant theme that emerged was the lack of genuine connection between caregivers and foster youth due to frequent placement changes, caregivers’ tendency to “other” foster youth, and difficulty parenting youth from diverse backgrounds. To address these barriers to connection, I drafted program adaptations and augmentations focused on developing a connection between foster youth and their caregivers, providing opportunities for meaningful interaction, and assisting youth in gaining necessary life skills. Further testing of these adaptations is currently in progress. This presentation will describe the focus group process, data analysis, and subsequent adaptations made.

 As the number of persons living in the United States with permanent criminal records rapidly increases, finding stable and affordable housing for ex-offenders and their families becomes exceedingly difficult. In the interest of promoting and protecting public safety, complete exclusion of those with criminal histories from the both the workforce and public housing has proven to be ineffective. While housing and employment are fundamental in preventing recidivism, those with criminal backgrounds face inevitable obstacles. Nevertheless, landlords and other officials of public and subsidized housing programs have a legitimate interest in ensuring the safety and well being of their residents. An evaluation of Seattle Housing Authority’s use of criminal history in determining which applicants to exclude from its various housing programs is thus necessary to address this conflict. By analyzing both the eviction notices and denial letters of housing applicants, our research aims to examine how criminal history impacts both potential and current residents, as well as determine whether the policies and subsequent actions of Seattle Housing Authority are consistent with the ultimate goal of providing secure housing for those in need. Through these findings we will develop policy recommendations that encompass a comprehensive understanding of the problem, while considering the legal, ethical, and social consequences of excluding applicants with criminal histories.

 The vestibular system is composed of the semicircular canal system, which detects rotational movements, and the otolith organ system, which senses linear accelerations and tilt with respect to gravity. The two systems can interact in a complex way during movement. The vestibular-ocular reflex (VOR) stabilizes a retinal image during head movement by commanding the eyes to move in a direction opposite to that of the head movement. Under some conditions, both the otolith organs and the semicircular canals contribute to the VOR. Unilateral or bilateral loss of vestibular function often results in vertigo and oscillopsia, which are debilitating and could be life-threatening because they result in falls or injury. In principle, a vestibular prosthesis could treat a functional loss of inner ear vestibular function by sending electrical stimulation into the three semicircular canals via electrodes to help maintain balance and stable vision. However, if the otolith organs are still functional, the signals from the prosthesis might be interpreted incorrectly in different head orientations, limiting the efficacy of the treatment. The interaction between the output from the otolith organs and artificial electrical stimulations from the implant is not known. In this experiment, we oriented a head-fixed rhesus monkey in different static positions along either of the roll and pitch axes prior to electrically inducing a VOR using the implanted vestibular prosthesis. Results showed that stimulation in the posterior canal induced a higher eye velocity in backward-tilted position than in the upright position, while stimulation in the anterior canal induced a slower eye velocity in the forward position than in the upright position. This project demonstrates that the performance of the implant changes under different body orientations. The prosthesis provides a unique experimental tool allowing us to disambiguate canal and otolith inputs in the intact organism.

Decision-making is a complex behavior where one must weigh cost and benefit to maximize the likelihood of the best possible outcome. A common example of this is a decision between a small yet certain reward (e.g. $1 or 1 piece of candy), and a larger uncertain reward (e.g. $10 or 10 pieces of candy 50% of the time). It has been suggested that context and dopamine levels play a critical role in the willingness of decision makers to take risks. We tested this hypothesis by assessing behavioral and neural differences between groups of rats trained on an equivalent risk-based paradigm conducted in different contexts. Rats started training in an operant chamber or a decision maze, and then switched contexts (i.e. tasks). These tasks involved the rat making a decision between two levers or doors, one of which was associated with a certain small reward (1 sugar pellet), and the other which is associated with a large (4 sugar pellets) reward that appeared with decreasing probability (100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%). To test the influence that dopamine has on risk taking behavior, we used a dopamine antagonist (flupenthixol) to inhibit dopamine in both the maze and operant chamber contexts. Our results suggest that when analyzed as a group, rats are less willing to take risks in the maze context. We hypothesize this is because risk taking on the maze is a more complex behavior, perhaps because of a longer delay between a choice and reward delivery. Our pharmacological findings of high numbers of trials in which levers were not pressed in the chamber, or trials not run on the maze, suggest that blocking dopamine interferes with the ability of rats to make risky decisions. Together, these results support the idea that risk-based decision-making is influenced by many factors, including context and dopamine.

Biochar is the product of biomass that undergoes pyrolysis, the process of thermal degradation in the absence of oxygen and is a type of charcoal. Research has shown biochar to be an effective soil amendment but the optimal levels of incorporation are unknown. This study examines if an optimal level for plant growth exists and to determine if introducing a stress factor will alter the optimal point. Five levels of biochar amendments at 0%, 1%, 3%, 5%, 10%, and 15% by volume have been made into root media with high or low nutrient availability as a stress factor. Sweet peppers plants were grown from seed in flats for one month and seedlings were transferred to larger pots with appropriate biochar level. They will be grown for two months and destructively harvested for dry biomass data. We hypothesize the pepper plants will have an optimal biochar level for growth and this level will change with plant stress.

Populations of P. menziesii on islands should exhibit reduced genetic diversity and canopy coverage, lower population age, increased reproductive succession and reduced understory species richness with respect to Mainland populations. Populations sampling within the same region and elavation should exhibit similar patterns. Seedling density as well as distribution of trees in multiple size classes and their diameter to height ratios were presented for each site. Species richness represented plant community structure and constituted of understory plants and percent coverage for each species within the plots. Genetic analysis consisted of laboratory analysis for selected individuals within the sites. Despite the vulnerability of small trees in establishment due to predation and greater sensitivity to environmental factors, high energetic costs to maintain large support structures of older trees create an additional unexpected source of vulnerability within the population. As genetic variation is component of successful reproductive succession and establishment, reduced variation in populations could result in greater sensitivity to more extreme environmental conditions as might be expected with climate change.

I conducted a five month field experiment, from October 17th, 2011 to February 17th 2012, with the purpose of exploring the effects of prairie plant density on survival rates. I performed the experiment at the Pierce Oakwood prairie location utilizing the Mima Mounds preserve as a reference. My hypothesis was plants in moderate density will have a better success rate than those in low and high density. The methods for this design were established by plotting three polygons of 2m x 2m each. I divided each polygon divided into three sections, each containing low, moderate, and high density and plants randomly planted. Plot spatial arrangements were random at each polygon. Each plot contained the same species with an increasing number from low to high density. Prairie plants consisted of plants commonly found throughout Washington State. Each polygon contained Mahonia aquifolium (Oregon grape), Achillea milefolium (White Yarrow), Holodiscus discolor (Ocean Spray), Castilleja miniata (Scarlet Paintbrush), and Aruncus dioicus (Giant Goats Beard). The following variables were measured and recorded biweekly: height, width, temperature delta, human foot traffic, and faunal foraging patterns. Mahonia aquifolium, Castilleja miniata, and Achillea milefolium had high survival rates in low, moderate, and high densities. Aruncus dioicus had high survival rates in high density, and Holodiscus discolor was most successful in low density. My results highlight the need to better understand optimal planting densities of individual species in prairie restoration planning.

My senior project explores the use of art to activate public spaces, specifically urban mixed-use alleys. It has two purposes. First, I want to determine whether an alley art walk event can enhance community wellness and revitalize alleys in the University District. And second, I want to explore how context shapes meaning by examining how the blunt contrast between fine art, typically reserved for an exclusive gallery setting, and a public alley, typically seen as a hub for crime and debauchery, can shape our perception of both art and alley. To achieve these goals, I have organized an event called Alley Art Walk that will be held in the University District in May, 2012 featuring UW student artwork and musicians. I have drawn on the advice of the non-profit The international Sustainability Institute to organize this event as well as my own research into street art events and alley activation methods. I will assess the project’s impact using interviews and observations of the event and its participants. The result of my work will be an established infrastructure for future Art Alley events, a greater sense of community and place in the University District, and a reconceptualization of alleys, art, and the relationship between the two.

Paris has a long history of being one of the most beautiful cities in the world. In the immediate postwar era, despite public opposition, a towering, Manhattan-like skyscraper was built in the middle of Paris, marring the traditional skyline. It was initially backed by President Charles de Gaulle. But because of the lack of funding as well as public protest, its construction was delayed over a decade. An American real estate developer, Wylie F. L. Tuttle, was the major force behind this controversial matter. So our questions are -- How did this controversial tower come about? And who is Tuttle and how did he get involved? My professor, Meredith Clausen and I formulated the hypothesis that Tuttle must have been a well-established real estate developer in the U.S. Also, we hypothesized that somehow must have had strong and powerful connections in France and internationally. I started my research by a background search on Mr. Tuttle. An initial hurdle was that he was not cited in any electronic text database. So I had to search more specifically in the historical archives of the NYT, Wall Street Journal, and other daily newspapers. At this point, I am moving on to researching American real estate developers who began invested in Paris in the postwar era, and how Tuttle got interested in this international investment. Thus far I have found some but only limited information about Wylie Tuttle. My professor as well emailed Carol Willis, adjunct professor of Urban Studies at Columbia University and the curator of Skyscraper Museum, who replied she had never heard of him. With more research, I hope to find out how he got involved in this politically as well as urbanistically controversial American “invasion” of Paris. My goal is to supply this missing piece in real estate investment history.

As environmental degradation continues to worsen around the world, finding ways to mitigate the effects is increasingly important. Currently, school systems widely utilize standardized testing as a method of teaching resulting in disconnect between children and nature. Environmental art education is a medium that can be used to develop tangible connections between the youth and the environment. It has even been shown to promote environmental concepts as well as produce more environmentally aware citizens.Through my capstone experience, I will be working with Nature Consortium and the Yesler community center to develop environmental art curricula and evaluate the impact of these curriculum on creating tangible connections between the youth and the environment. I will be developing 10-20 environmental art curriculums and projects. Comparative evaluations of the students that have particpated in the environmental art curricula and the students who have not participated in the lessons will be conducted through surveys. Through this project I will also be responsible for creating plans for an environmentally aesthetic  classroom to contribute and facilitate the connections between the environmental art lessons and the students. My deliverables resulting from this project will include 10-20 environmental art curriculums, annotated bibliography, capstone journal logging my hands-on experience, and research material on the environmental art education. This data will help contribute not only to the organization I am working with, but to the future organizations. Discovering how to engage youth with the enviornment is key to both mitigating environmental degradation and creating adults who are more environmentally aware. 

Research on resilience (ability to overcome obstacles in life) has shown that early childhood socio-emotional competence is a strong predictor of future resilience as an adolescent and adult. Research shows that resilience is not a stable quality of individuals, but rather a changeable, dynamic pattern of functioning that is influenced by protective factors such as positive relationships, strong attachment bonds, and self-regulation skills. Early childhood intervention programs have been found to make lasting effects on the functioning of individuals into adulthood. Children who have attended preschool programs are less likely to be incarcerated, drop out of school, and placed into special education programs. (Barnett, 2002) However, research on preschool intervention has focused mostly on cognitive and adult outcomes, rather than socio-emotional competence in childhood. This study seeks to learn if preschool programs targeting disadvantaged children, is related to outcomes of protective factors and behavioral concerns, as measured the the DECA-C, an assessment tool becoming widely used to study resilient functioning in children ages 2 to 5 years. The design of this study involves two full-day, demographically-similar preschool classrooms. In addition to comparing children’s scores on the DECA instrument, teachers were audio-taped and observed for 20 hours to identify the quality of teacher-child relationships, a factor known to be very influential to child self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that children that participate in high-quality preschool intervention programs will show higher DECA scores measured over the course of one year. This research has implications for teacher-training, curriculum design, and family programs that have a stronger emphasis on socio-emotional development in low-income early childhood classrooms. This research is also specifically interested in how early childhood intervention can promote resilience to future adverse life experiences for underprivileged children.

According to the 2011 Citizens’ Report Card on Washington State Education, 18 out of 100 Washington State kindergarteners continue with their education and eventually graduate from college. Within those numbers, there exists an achievement gap that divides along racial, ethnic, geographic and socio-economic fault lines. Despite decades of raised awareness on the issue and despite enormous efforts and billions of dollars in investments towards proposed “solutions”, this gap is actually widening in Washington State. Privileging an Applied Anthropological perspective, this research will investigate some of the roles that Community Based Organizations (CBO) play in addressing this pressing issue. With the intent to provide deliverable recommendation to the CBO for improvements and tangible steps towards holistic solutions, this project will examine ways in which the South Seattle Neighborhood is addressing the education deficit outside of the classroom. This project will employ Participant Action Research methods (such as peer-led focus groups, participant observation, photo-voice, and discourse analysis) within a a non-profit organization in the Jackson neighborhood that offers college planning advising and financial aid assistance. As a participant in their Mentor2College year long program, I will experience the program first hand as a mentor and will be able to lay that experience into the macro picture in an effort to provide recommendations to help the CBO provide more effective, culturally competent and more relevant services with quantifiable outcomes. 

The essay “Radical, Racial Antisemitism: The Building Blocks of Nazi Policy” explores the progression of religious antisemitism throughout history into the modern practice of a more severe form of discrimination, radical, racial antisemitism. This resulting radical, racial antisemitism, or the belief that Jews belonged to an inferior race, penetrated the Weltanschauung (world view) of key founding members of the Nazi Party, including Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels. Nazi leadership embraced radical, racial antisemitic ideology as a foundational principle of their party politics during their rise to power between 1919 and 1933. As such, this radical, racial antisemitic philosophy determined Nazi policy, laws, and doctrine that led to the eventual mass extermination of the Jews of Europe. By examining and analyzing historical antisemitic documents, the writings of Hitler, Himmler, and Goebbels, and texts of early Nazi laws, the essay establishes the connection between the radical philosophies of prominent Nazi officials and the formation of the foundations and frameworks of the early political policies implemented by the Nazi regime in the early 1930s.

From the late 14th through the 15th century, the German Hanse was a major player in economic, political, and military conflict –areas traditionally associated with state actors –throughout northern Europe, despite being a decentralized, non-sovereign, non-territorial entity. The Hanse was a late medieval/early modern trade organization, the driving purpose of which, from its founding and throughout its development, was to provide for the mutual protection of its member cities’ merchants in the course of their business and ensure and expand their rights and privileges in foreign ports; to protect their merchants against the predations of both pirates and kings. It is thus one of the great historical ironies that the Hanse became a source of piracy and mercantile harassment rivaling those of the sovereign states of Northern Europe. The Hanse’s relations with England throughout the late 14th and 15th century, especially in the decades surrounding the English dynastic struggle of the Wars of the Roses and concurrent Anglo-Hanseatic War, exemplify the Hanse’s role as a state-like actor in international conflict. Current scholarship on the Hanse focuses on cliometric trade analysis and linear narrative history, but I emphasize the unique nature of the Hanse and how it determined their actions on the international stage, critically reading Parliamentary records, royal appeals, and major secondary sources in light of my analysis of the Hanse’s foundational documents. I explore the motivations of the Hanse in its conflicts with England and determine that the Hanse’s use of piracy and the harassment of English merchants represented a natural continuation of their founding principles. My research addresses questions of the motivations and internal dynamics of one of the most successful and longest-lasting international trade leagues to-date as it interacted with more traditional state-entities in diplomatic and economic contexts.  

Storm water runoff has been a growing issue in recent years. Many of us know that the increase of land cover by impermeable surfaces, such as concrete and home shingles, has caused much of this issue. Puyallup was once a vast valley of fertile soil, but is now seen as a fast growing suburban area. The transition between these two points in time explains a lot about the storm water runoff problem the Puyallup valley is now facing. Deforestation was the first step to the storm water runoff problem; before the early settlers of the Puyallup valley could start utilizing the fertile soil of the valley for agriculture, they had to rid of most of the trees in the area. Mono crop agriculture was the second step, depleting the soil of its natural ability to hold itself together. Urbanization, paving and building in particular, are the most recent and relevant to the issue of storm water runoff in the Puyallup valley. I have examined each of these historical events in detail to explain how the use of land in Puyallup corresponds to storm water runoff. My research includes primary source information from some of the first settlers of the Puyallup valley and land surveyors’ reports over time. I have also used GIS maps of the Puyallup area and information from peer reviewed scientific research articles on storm water runoff. My research shows that the change in land use over time has brought us to the storm water runoff issue we face today. The progression through time shows that deforestation, mono crop agriculture, and development shaped the issue of storm water runoff we face today.

The modern parents' choice between disposable and reuseable affects not only their child but their global and local community. In exchange for more convient disposable diapers the industry has degraded the environment, introduced public health hazards, strained waste management efforts, and increased monetary costs of diaper consumers. Cloth diapers provide parents a less impactful option and a good value economically. This paper will explore the harmful effects of disposable diapers, the benefits of cloth diapers, why and how parents choose their diapers, and why most parents (90 percents) choose disposables. The motivation behind parents' choice will be studied, and their knowledge of diapers will be assessed. Interviews will consists of parents with young children using either cloth diapers or disposable diapers. Analysis of the interviews will access disparities between the parents and how society might educate parents to choose a diaper that is more ecologically sustainable, financially endurable, and better for their children's immediate health and development.

The current geographical configuration of the Titlow Beach area in Tacoma, Washington has its origins in the 1903 purchase of the northern half of the W.B. Wilton Land Claim by Aaron R. Titlow. It now includes a city park, a state marine preserve, and a residential neighborhood with a few businesses. Our project is to research and delineate the geographical changes over time to this area, beginning with the arrival of Europeans to its shores. The word “arrival” is key to our project, as the various modes of transportation which brought Europeans and then Americans to the area will be used to convey each major shift in the land’s use. The three modes of transportation most responsible for these geographical changes are boat, railroad, and automobile. Boats brought the first European settlers to the area; the railroad helped fulfill Aaron Titlow’s dream of turning the area into a vacation destination; and the invention and subsequent proliferation of the automobile effectively put an end to his dream, transforming the area into a residential suburb. Our research includes comparing the area’s current features to its original Wilton land surveys of 1868; analyzing the methods used to make the area accessible by boat, then railroad, and then automobile; interviewing local long-time residents; and researching state and city data pertaining to the area’s respective marine preserve and park. Of particular interest to us is the ecological impact Titlow’s hotel had on the area, including his litigious influence on the Northern Pacific Railroad’s specific route through his tourist destination, and the three-story hotel’s subsequent transformation to a one-story lodge. We also hope to uncover the ecological impact on the beach that has resulted from the oil-tar-creosote-coated derelict pilings that are still standing after the dismantling of the beach’s ferry terminal.

Neurons contain two highly specialized compartments: the dendrite, which receives synaptic or sensory inputs, and the axon, which relays these signals to other cells. Different types of neurons often have unique, type-specific dendrite morphologies and proper dendrite patterning is important for normal neuronal function. Underscoring the importance of dendrite morphology to neuronal function, defects in dendrite patterning likely contribute to numerous neurological disease states and the cognitive decline that accompanies normal aging. However, the many genes that contribute to the complex dendrite patterns remain largely uncharacterized. To identify genes involved in this process, we conducted a genetic screen for mutants that alter the patterning of sensory neuron dendrites that innervate the body wall of fruit fly larvae. Briefly, we mutagenized fruit flies with EMS, a chemical mutagen, and screened for late-larval stage lethal mutations that perturb dendrite patterning using a fluorescent protein that allowed us to visualize a single functional class of sensory neurons in living larvae. Here, we report our analysis of a novel mutant, messi. Using live cell imaging and quantitative analysis, we found that messi leads to exuberant dendrite branching and intermingling of dendrites in sensory neurons. This latter defect is of particular interest since “self-avoidance” may represent a general mechanism for organizing sensory dendrites and little is known about the genetic basis for this phenomenon. Using time-lapse microscopy, we found that messi causes progressive dendrite defects: the dendrite patterning of messi mutants is indistinguishable from wild type early in development, but becomes abnormal later in development. Similarly, dendrite defects in many neurological disorders are progressive, therefore further analysis of messi may contribute to our understanding of how dendrite maintenance is deregulated in diseased states. Currently, we are working towards identifying the gene affected in messi mutants and determining whether messi affects dendrite patterning in other functional classes of sensory neurons.

The immune response of individuals with disrupted sleep such as night-shift workers has been shown to decrease relative to individuals with regular sleep patterns. Cytokines are small molecules secreted as part of the immune response to infection. Certain cytokines have been shown to regulate sleep, and this regulation likely constitutes a critical component of the immune response. A common consequence of exposure to unusual light-dark (LD) cycles, such as those under jetlag or shift-work schedules, is the internal desynchronization of circadian rhythms. This desynchronization is associated with disruptions in the sleep-wake cycle and we hypothesize that this disruption may be linked to abnormal secretion of cytokines. Using an animal model of internal desynchronization, we exposed rats to a 22-hour LD (11L: 11D) cycle which leads to desynchronization of the sleep stages known as Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REMS) and nonREM sleep (NREMS). In these animals, the temporal sequence of REMS and NREMS changes stably between days of alignment, in which the sequence is normal, and days of misalignment, in which this sequence is disrupted. We will analyze levels of three cytokines, interleukins 1, 6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) over a 24-hour period in animals either bled during days of alignment or during days of misalignment. Our hypothesis predicts lower production levels of these cytokines in misaligned rats.The implications of this study may indicate that the alignment of circadian rhythms, particularly of the sleep-wake cycle, are critical to maintaining normal cytokine levels and to sustaining normal immune response.

Contact influences the behavior and associations of delphinids and other cetaceans. However, little is known about the role of contact in beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) social interactions. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the degree of contact in eight belugas at Sea World San Antonio using a focal sampling procedure of 10 minute observations. Frequency and/or duration were recorded for the initiating /receiving beluga, type of contact, body part used to contact, and object receiving contact. Data were collected during two seasons: Summer 2011, which examined contact behaviors between belugas and Fall 2011, which examined contact behaviors between belugas and object contact. During the summer, 27 contact events occurred across 120 observation sessions. Contact occurred at a rate of .02 events per minute, indicating belugas rarely contact each other. Most of the contact events that did occur were initiated by the three non-adult belugas, during affiliative play interactions and were short in duration. A third of the events occurred between a mother-calf pair while the calf was in infant position and lasted longer than most social interactions. During the fall, 17 physical contact events and 909 object contact events occurred across 120 observation sessions. Physical contact occurred at a rate of .01 events per minute. Like the summer session, most of the physical contact events were initiated by the three non-adult belugas, during affiliative play interactions and were short in duration. Again most of the events occurred between the mother-calf pair while the calf was swimming in infant position and were longer than most social interactions. Object contact occurred at a rate of .76 events per minute. Objects were contacted through rubbing 94% of the time, and objects were contacted through touching 6% of the time. Overall, belugas contacted objects more than each other.

Cemeteries allow us to connect with our past and better understand our heritage on an emotional level. In the case of the Kennecott Cemetery, the historic landscape provides a valuable resource to interpret the social history of a mining community that has ceased to exist. From 1908 until 1938, Kennecott was a thriving copper mining town. Hundreds of men worked in the mines and many of those who lost their lives in work-related accidents are buried in the cemetery. When mining operations were terminated in 1938, the entire workforce departed and Kennecott became a desolate ghost town. The cemetery is the only landscape that provides physical evidence of religious influences being present at Kennecott and further reinforces such activities taking place throughout the entire period of the town’s settlement. To date, Kennecott is located within the boundaries of Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska, and was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986. As an intern for the National Park Service, I partook in conducting an analysis and evaluation of the historic features present at the Kennecott Cemetery. This research contributed to producing a Cultural Landscape Report and Interpretive Plan which will provide planning, management and treatment recommendations for the cemetery. Overall, these documents will be a vital resource to improve the ability of Park managers to identify and protect existing resources and interpret the significance of the landscape to an expansive audience.

I am interested in the affect deforestation and globalization has on indigenous cultures, like that of the Wehea Dayak in Borneo, Indonesia. The deforestation that is a result of palm oil plantation production creates significant challenges for the indigenous community adjacent to the plantations, such as the Wehea Dayak. The Wehea Dayak experience cultural degradation, forced migration and monthly flooding linked to deforestation.  My research will explore the ripple effects of deforestation. Through participant observation and interviewing, I will research links between environmental degradation, poverty, and illness. By having lived there previously, I have a strong, trusting report with the community. This research is imperative for the global community because indigenous communities possess deep ecological knowledge as a result of centuries of living in a specific area. I want to participate in this research because it exemplifies applied work and by helping record and provide cultural documentation the community can then advocate for themselves. The Wehea Dayak voiced their wanting for help in preserving their unique culture and lifestyle, and by applying the research I have obtained through the means of helping a targeted community is an imperative goal of anthropological work.

What makes one country happier than another? For centuries mankind has searched for an answer to what brings bliss, producing a great variety of answers. Over the past two years I have been on my own search; first collecting data and readings from varying scholars and fields of education, I then presented my findings at last year’s URS. A major division between western medicine and eastern wisdom split my presentation, and left me wanting a more visceral experience. Fortunately, my advisers Dr. David Barash and Dr. Judith Lipton took on a book to tackle my primary question, and allowed me to watch their house in the Central American sunspot, Costa Rica. Additionally, Costa Rica had been named the world’s happiest country by several organizations. Both my advisers and I had some qualms on how these organizations (World Happiness Database, Yale Environmental Performance, Happy Planet Index) addressed such subjective variables, and thus my project split. For the summer, I was to explore the country, conduct informal interviews with locals, tourists, and collect field notes to form answers towards some broad questions. Are Costa Rican’s the world’s happiest? What mechanics create such joy? Finally, what can we learn from them? Presently, I am conducting further investigations on how these organizations rank happiness. Possible methodological faults are addressed by comparing mental health and social inequalities to their rankings. In my attempt to put boundaries on an abstract emotion, quantitative and qualitative in nature, I have distilled cloudy answers to what makes us happy. I view these as primal ingredients towards a universal ‘elixir’. This ‘happiness variable’ takes flexibility, openness, purpose, & awareness to create. I believe we all have the capacity to be happy and hope to present some tools discovered while researching to help construct understanding and accessibility to this enriching experience.

 CARICOM (Carribean Community) is a community based trade agreement association within the Caribbean region which is comprised of 15 nations. Regional progression is outlined through accelerated, coordinated, and sustained economic development. Theoretically, CARICOM has been ideal in the growth and expansion of the post-colonial Caribbean market. With the rise of it’s global and local commerce, CARICOM can be criticized as a neocolonial paradigm. Although this organization has historically been instrumental in Caribbean advancement, it has begun to reinforce systems of oppression and create cultural rifts within political nationalism. Research will comprise a collection of ethnographic interviews and thorough analysis of text course reserves from the University of the West Indies in Cave hill, Barbados. It was evident throughout my fieldwork in the Caribbean, that tourism still remains a major sector of its economy. How does regional tourism negotiate power relations within Caribbean nations? I will explore possible avenues of exploitation, degradation, and discrimination within Caribbean tourism and its evocative nature of neo-colonialism.

My research aims to counter the notion that women do not mind the silencing, sexualization, and objectification of their bodies by providing a platform whereby the often unseen and unheard female body can voice a resounding reply that, on the contrary, she does mind, and very much so. My research examines works of contemporary historical fiction, like Toni Morrison’s A Mercy and Chang-rae Lee’s A Gesture Life, in order to explore the silencing of particular women in critical moments of capitalist transformation within and beyond the United States: the transatlantic slave trade, colonization, and imperialism, and the subsequent 20th century proliferation of neoliberalism, nation-building, and imperialism. It highlights this silencing by tracing traumas the female body endures. And does this specifically by defining the different female body parts that function as primary shock-absorbers as women who are coping with the effects of dislocation, displacement, and diaspora are not only gendered and sexualized in these labor markets but are also raced – a key component of representation and sexual exploitation. Vehemently criticizing the phallocratic order responsible for these various states of uprootedness is Luce Irigaray, whose essay “This Sex Which Is Not One” is concerned with the search for and implementation of a uniquely feminine language. My research interrogates the possibility of such a language existing and the significance it would bear in breaking the univocal shroud restricting the expressions and movements of the female body. This analysis utilizes a Marxist reading of the commodification of woman and her sex, as well as Irigaray’s conception of mimesis as it pertains to the recognition and viewing of the female. The injuries of being sexualized, gendered, and raced, unfortunately restrict the feminine discourse that female bodies could potentially produce by dehumanizing the female and rendering her nothing but a voiceless soft slip of flesh.

A reversible tissue adhesive is a surface that is capable of sticking to tissues repeatedly without losing adhesive ability, similar to how geckos' feet can adhere to smooth and rough dry surfaces. This project seeks to combine the reversible adhesion exhibited by geckos and the bacterium E. coli, a model for receptor-ligand tissue adhesives. This technology has the potential to benefit laparoscopic forceps designs, which are required to manipulate delicate tissues easily punctured or torn during a medical procedure. FimH is an adhesive protein expressed at the end of E. coli fimbriae that binds reversibly to mannose, a sugar expressed in human endothelial tissues. A FimH receptor-ligand adhesive has worked on small length scales (μm²), but adhesion fails at larger scales (cm²), possibly due to the propagation of a single crack at the adhesive interface. My project addresses this failure by 1) fabricating the geometry of the existing adhesive in PDMS allowing an interface size without damaging force instruments and 2) combining E. coli fimbriae with polymer molds of micron-sized pillar arrays that mimic the topology of gecko footpads and arrest crack propagation on dry surfaces. Spherical PDMS slices of increasing size (40μm – 300μm radii) were coated with mannose and brought down to fimbriated cell-culture plates. Results show that PDMS measures higher adhesion (226 nN) than the existing receptor-ligand adhesive (25 nN), indicating a successful increase in adhesive interface size. The PDMS surface can be used to measure and compare the adhesive capabilities of various micropillar array geometries coated with E. coli fimbriae. In conclusion, micropillar geometries that measure higher adhesion than plates coated with fimbraie have the potential to be developed into a tissue adhesive. Future studies may show reversible adhesion is achieved when fimbriated-micropillar substrates are brought in contact with cultured and dissected tissues.

A key issue in synthetic biology is the evolutionary robustness of synthetic circuits. Creation of robust circuits requires the development of design criteria to extend evolutionary timescales, and insight into the relative evolutionary fitness of different circuit designs. Experimentally, this research requires the use of multiple cell culture runs that are time-consuming and laborious. To accelerate this work, development of a high-throughput, automated, and parallel mini-chemostat and turbidostat device is proposed. While the development of nutrient-replenishing chemostat devices dates back to 1950, and the usage of such devices is well-documented, even modern chemostats are not well-suited to evolutionary experiments. Current designs face significant issues of equipment fouling, specialized complexity, and prohibitive cost. Presently there is a lack of cost-effective options for highly parallel milliliter-scale chemostat devices which can be applied to problems in synthetic biology. The proposed device is small and modular, utilizing multiple standard petri dishes for parallel culture experiments. The design features integrated media refreshment and temperature control mechanisms. Visible and fluorescent direct-view, real-time imaging systems are included. The device is constructed of readily-available parts to maintain low cost. Parts are modular such that used petri dishes can be easily removed, disposed of, and replaced. The design is scalable such that numerous devices can be stacked or tiled for parallel experiments. At present, design and fabrication of the device hardware have been completed, and the device has been verified functional for an operational period of at least 24 hours. Directed evolution experiments to measure of loss-of-functionality mutations in engineered E. coli will be conducted to assess live-culture performance of the device. An open-source software package and electronic microcontroller system are being developed to allow for automated real-time measurement and customization of growth and measurement parameters.

Minimally invasive surgical (MIS) techniques, such as laparoscopic surgery (performed through small incisions using specialized tools), are an integral part of modern medicine and the future of surgery. Technologically advanced tools such as MIS robots are promising to replace or augment existing MIS manual tools. MIS robots improve on manual surgery, as they can incorporate increasingly sophisticated features such as force feedback for surgeons, automatic identification of diseased tissues, and partial automation of surgical tasks. These features can reduce patient pain, recovery time and thus healthcare costs by eliminating unintended damage to tissue and providing surgeons with tools to perform surgery more effectively. Each of these new features either requires or would greatly benefit from an accurate mathematical description of the dynamic mechanical properties for the tissues with which surgeons interact. Dynamic tissue property quantification requires that we apply a range of forces to the tissue and measure the resulting displacements. We have designed, built, and calibrated a device capable of collecting the necessary data to obtain an equation relating applied force to tissue displacement for any tissue of interest. We will process the data obtained from this device using an advanced signal processing and system identification algorithm (unscented Kalman filtering), which will evaluate the fit to the data recursively over time. This will allow us to maintain accurate results as the tissue properties change over time. This setup allows us to collect and analyze data from tissues including (but not limited to) in vivo abdominal organs in pigs. In addition to being an important study that has not been performed in the literature, the real-time collection and analysis of this data could have profound implications in partially automating surgery.

While red blood cell transfusions require basic blood type matching (A+, B-, O+, etc...), effective platelet transfusions require complex histocompatibility matching, testing to make sure specific alleles of genes are the same between donor and recipient so as to prevent rejection; this is similar to the testing required for organ transplants. Currently, platelets are transfused from random donors until a patient shows signs of rejection, at which point a blood center must attempt to find a histocompatible donor out of its registry to donate on short notice. Using a canine model, the Slichter lab has created a treatment, through a combination of filtration leukoreduction to remove antigen presenting white cells (APCs) and irradiation to inactivate residual APCs, which may prevent transfused recipients from rejecting non-histocompatible donor platelets. In my research, I will focus on canine immune responses to platelet transfusions. The lab transfuses canines with mismatched, treated platelets and measures the recovery and survival of radiolabeled donor platelets to document rejection; antibody levels are also measured, to correlate decreased donor platelet recoveries and survivals as being immune mediated. I perform an Enzyme-Linked Immunoabsorbent spot (ELI-spot) assay to test the production of gamma interferon (IFN-g). IFN-g is produced primarily by activated T-h1 and CD8 lymphocytes as well as other cells such as macrophages and mast cells. As such, the ELI-spot serves as a direct indication of the very beginning of an immune response. My research aims to expand on the current antibody data and directly correlate the recipient’s response to transfused platelets with the results of the ELI-spot assay. This research allows a direct link between cell interactions and immune responses, which can then be compared to the donor’s platelet recovery and survival data to see if a correlation exists. This will allow us to better judge the effectiveness of various platelet treatments by identifying significant correlations between in vitro data and post-transfusion platelet responses. Not only can this lead to breakthroughs in platelet delivery, but the results may also be useful in detecting early organ transplant rejection.

The year of 1863 proved to be a turning point in the American Civil War, one reason being the faith of Abraham Lincoln and his spiritually based conviction that the young nation of America could no longer ignore the question of slavery. Lincoln's personal beliefs had a definite effect on his presidency as he struggled over why God did not seem to take a hand in either side of the war. Battles were won and lost on both sides, frustrating everyone who thought the war would be short and decisive. Lincoln, feeling that God had instructed him to do so, enacted the Emancipation Proclamation. This ended up changing the tide of the war and showed how powerful the element of faith can be in the life of a president. As his motivation changed from simply wanting to keep the southern states in the union to actually insisting that slavery had to end, the Emancipation Proclamation and the subsequent victory at Gettysburg finally made Lincoln feel as if Providence was taking a hand.

This project explores whether steady increases in inequality; the neoliberal retreat of the State from social protection; and the Great Recession of 2008 produce new forms of cross class interaction, identity formation, and action around the themes of poverty and inequality. Specifically, we are interested in studying the production, maintenance, and renegotiation of middle class-ness in the context of rising inequality. Using a variety of qualitative methods including, but not limited to, ethnography, archival research, PAR, and critical GIS, we hope to investigate a series of questions on middle class responses to and involvements with poverty. What are the sites at which these interactions can be studied? What sorts of ideas about poverty and inequality are produced in different 'sites of governance' and 'zones of encounter'? Through this research, we'll investigate potentials for social alliance around poverty in the Seattle region, as well as spaces of increased difference and class-based tensions.

The 2007 financial crisis and subsequent recession in the United States has brought the political economy of unsustainable debt to the forefront of the minds of people everywhere in a way not seen in decades.  This paper will delve into the puzzle of why neither dominant political party has been able to institute the recommendations of the four highly regarded debt and deficit reduction commissions in light of their general consensus regarding goals that need to be met in order to avoid a currency crisis.  We ask the question: Why has the Congress of the United States failed to enact measures to reverse the trajectory of the triple deficits of the United States (fiscal, trade, unfunded liabilities) and thereby avoid this crisis?  Our hypothesis is that decades of continued entrenchment of budgetary, trade, and social policies led to gridlock.  We will investigate the coalitions that have formed around the aging baby boomer population, national health care, and national defense.  First, we will discuss the recommendations of the various commissions.  Second, we will review the literature regarding the interests and coalitions within representative bodies contending with looming fiscal imbalances. Third, we will analyze the interest groups, coalitions, and beneficiaries of inaction at this particular time and relate this to the previous literature review.  Finally we speculate as to what would be necessary for congress to act, and what are the likely scenarios if congress fails to act. Having done so, it is our hope that we can provide policy makers and constituents with a deeper understanding of the political-economic problem that the country faces.

In the aftermath of the Cold War an evolving international economy brought about many changes for countries with transitioning economies. The difficult work of properly guiding transitioning economies through the radical changes required of shifting from command to market economies is not easily undertaken and many mistakes are made throughout that process. By untangling the nexus of political and economic reforms that transitioning economies go through we can achieve more accurate understandings of how transitions occur and can in turn attempt to avoid some of the mistakes made in the past. This paper hypothesizes that the greater the liberalization speed of a transitioning economy the more corrupt the economy and associated political system will be. Contrary to prior examinations of corruption, this paper contends that the nature of transition determines to a greater extent the causes of corruption than does historical or institutional factors about the state itself. The guiding theory behind my hypothesis is that reforms implemented over a short period of time are more susceptible to politically turbulent conditions which will cause elites to attempt to consolidate power via illegal means out of fear that they may lose their position of power in the near future. By comparing the speed of liberalization in several transitioning economies to the rates of corruption in those economies I attempt to demonstrate a causal link between the rate of liberalization and corruption.  

Since 1986, Bolivia has experienced a wave of International Monetary Fund imposed privatization. The breaking point occurred during the Cochabamba Water War. Over a period of months, citizens of Cochabamba took to the streets to protest the sale of their state water utility, SEMAPA, to international consortium Aguas del Tunari, and the resulting 150-300% rate hikes. This research asks this question: to what degree has indigenous culture helped to shape such anti-privatization movements in Bolivia? This research argues that the anti-water privatization movement fostered a reclamation of indigenous identities by Bolivian indigenous peoples who felt detached from their traditional roots. Indigenous groups such as the Aymara and Quechua historically have been socially, politically, and economically excluded from the Bolivian nation, which has been dominated by a white/Mestizo elite. While Bolivian social movements in the past have been formed along union lines, contemporary movements have seen indigenous groups rally around their unique indigenous identities. This research shows how cultural elements such as collective memory and dance have been used as rallying points for protestors who feel denied full citizenship, giving scholars a better understanding of how social movements achieve success. In Cochabamba, the tradition of the Fiesta, practiced annually by the city's indigenous inhabitants, served as a focal point for collective action which united participants under their own definition of "Bolivian" culture. Bolivian indigenous social movements additionally serve as a model for further reversals of IMF imposed economic policies. Such movements indicate a desire for increased representation of the indigenous majority, as well as alternatives to the capitalist system of economic development. This study is based on analysis of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include: published interviews with activists, media coverage of their actions, and economic reports regarding privatization plans. Secondary sources include multidisciplinary analyses of the movement in question.

M dwarf stars, which are smaller, dimmer, and redder than our Sun, are the most common type of star in our galaxy. Like our Sun, these stars exhibit activity due to inherently strong magnetic fields at their surfaces. In M dwarfs, this activity is often classified by the emission line strength of the first transition of the hydrogen Balmer series (H alpha). We examine a sample of five equal-mass M dwarf wide binaries; these “twin” stars should have nearly identical stellar properties and therefore have very similar spectral features. We hypothesize that these stars should exhibit nearly identical properties in H alpha. If our hypothesis proves false, it means there are unexpected dynamics present in the binary system. In initial observations to classify these objects, we found that the M dwarfs in each binary, which were twins in every other way, showed very different levels of H alpha emission. To examine the range of H alpha line strengths we obtained a time series of optical spectra using the Astrophysical Research Consortium’s 3.5-meter telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico. In each binary, the slightly less massive star exhibits stronger mean H alpha, consistent with large survey results. Using data from 70 hours over 14 nights, we determined our stars have a characteristic variability timescale of around 2 hours; indicating our sample is active on shorter timescales than the typical rotational period.

Exoplanets are planets outside our solar system. As they do not emit light of their own, these objects have historically been much harder to find and study than stars. One detection method exploits the slight dimming of a star caused by a planet passing across its face. In astronomy, these events are termed transits, and they cause distinct u-shaped dips in the lightcurve—a plot of observed brightness versus time—of their host star. In recent years, the Kepler Space Telescope has provided lightcurve data on a fixed group of stars that is unprecedented in precision. Our research is primarily concerned with searching released Kepler data for previously undiscovered exoplanets. Due to the vast quantity of information, we have developed a pipeline of computer code to expedite the search process. The code, written in python, detrends variations in quiescent star brightness to normalize each lightcurve around a fixed, flat value. This readies the data for input to a Quasi-Periodic Automated Transit Search algorithm (QATS). Thus far, we have identified a handful of planet candidates as well as a number of undocumented binary star systems. Current and future tasks involve automating QATS output classification to further improve the efficiency of the planet finding process.

 Galaxy formation theories call for all galaxies to be embedded in massive extended dark matter halos. Ideally, we would use thousands to millions of tracer particles to map the dynamical environment around galaxies to constrain the properties of dark matter. Reality limits us to using only the dynamical tracers that are luminous enough to actually be observed. The spiral galaxy NGC 4258 has numerous small galaxies surrounding it that appear to be satellite galaxies, and can therefore be used as dynamical tracers. To determine if these smaller galaxies are indeed satellites, we examine their redshifts by combining spectroscopic observations from the APO 3.5-meter telescope with SDSS spectra. Of the 33 observed objects, 22 appear to be members of the system. Using the projected line-of-sight velocities of the satellite galaxies and a Jeans equation approximation, we estimate the mass of NGC 4258 out to a radius of 260kpc to be 6x10¹² solar masses with an error of 50%. When utilizing a more rigorous set of criteria to determine which candidate galaxies are actually satellites, we are left with only 8 true satellites and derive a new mass to be 1.3x10¹² solar masses out to a radius of 230kpc. Further observations are expected to yield around 20 to 40 more satellite velocity measurements, which will improve our mass estimate and significantly reduce our error. By searching the SDSS database, we believe we can find other galaxy systems that host enough satellites to repeat this technique.

The effects of amphetamine on learning and memory are important areas of research due to the widespread use of amphetamine among people, ranging from prescription to recreational. It has been shown in animals that repeated treatment of amphetamine will result in sensitization to the drug. Sensitization is a process through which treated subjects develop an elevated response to a drug. Long term potentiation (LTP) is a physical change strengthening the connection between synapses that is thought to underlie learning and memory. Enhancement of LTP in the striatum has been shown to occur as a result of amphetamine use. The striatum is a brain region important in mediating a large number of behaviors including motor control and learning. For this reason it is possible that sensitization to amphetamine may affect learning in mice. To investigate this possibility, wild-type mice sensitized to amphetamine were tested in behavioral paradigms designed to measure learning ability. It was found that they do not show enhanced performance in motor learning, appetitive learning, or spatial learning, but they may show an improvement over controls when they are required to alter their strategy to escape from a water-maze. In order to explore the neurological pathway through which sensitization to amphetamine may affect learning, we also tested knockout mice that lack N-methyl-D–aspartate-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) in medium spiny neurons, the primary neuron type in the striatum. In many brain regions, NMDARs are important for various forms of learning and memory, and it has been shown that these knockout mice display impaired motor and appetitive learning and yet are still able to sensitize to amphetamine. Using the same learning paradigms as with our wild-type mice, we found that knockout mice did not show any enhancement in motor or appetitive learning as a result of amphetamine sensitization.

The inferior olive is heavily involved in implicit timing, the unconscious encoding of timing of sensory or motor events. Performance of these tasks relies on synchronous output from ensembles of neurons in the inferior olive, which are electrotonically coupled to one another via gap junctions. Previous attempts to understand coupling properties in the inferior olive have relied on technically challenging dual whole-cell recordings. Here, I demonstrate an optogenetic approach which provides rapid evaluation of electrotonic coupling in the inferior olive using femtosecond pulsed infrared stimulation of olivary cells expressing the light-activated cation channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2 H134R). Targeted expression of ChR2 in olivary neurons was achieved through the Ai32 mouse line engineered at the Allen Institute for Brain Science, which were crossed with mice expressing Cre-recombinase targeted to the pancreatic transcription factor 1a (Ptf1a) locus. Parasagittal brainstem slices were prepared from young (P20-P40) Ptf1a-Ai32 positive mice. Electrodes were guided under IR-DIC for whole-cell recording of a single olivary neuron. Neighboring cells were stimulated using 920 nm light (<1 mW/µm² average power), in which a single infrared beam was split into 64 beamlets and distributed evenly over the neighboring cell's cross sectional area (100-400 µm²). Coupling properties determined by optogenetic stimulation of neighboring cells replicated previous results produced by dual whole-cell recordings (CC=1-10%). Furthermore, optogenetic evaluation of coupling following pharmacological manipulation of olivary neurons were consistent with previous findings. This optogenetic approach will provide a rapid and efficient method for future exploration of coupling properties in the inferior olive, which may accelerate the study of their involvement in pathologies such alcoholism, autism and sudden infant death syndrome.

Spontaneous activity (SA) in the developing brain is responsible for neural network formation processes such as proliferation, migration, axon extension and pathfinding, and synapse formation and maintenance. In embryonic mouse hindbrain, SA role in forming networks tends to be the most critical at specific developmental stage E11.5, when the activity is most robust and synchronous. The SA is thought to initiate in a group of serotonergic raphe nuclei located in the midline former rhombomere 2 (r2) region of the hindbrain. Voltage-dependent calcium waves propagate rostrocaudally in cells along the midline and laterally into the surrounding tissue (Hunt et al. 2005). Over time, SA decreases in frequency, later disappearing by stage E15. This project aims to investigate the mechanisms for this disappearance. Our experiments are done using electrophysiology and calcium imaging. Electrophysiology has shown that SA disappearance correlates in time with an increase in conductance as well as a hyperpolarization of the membrane potential. Calcium imaging has shown that application of BaCl2, a potassium channel blocker, can induce activity at stage E15. Activity at this stage can also be induced by raising extracellular potassium concentration, which effectively depolarizes membrane potential. This evidence suggests the up regulation of potassium channels in the mechanism of SA disappearance.

Parkinson’s disease is a motor disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, and inability to initiate movement. One therapy for non-drug responsive cases is high amplitude, high frequency stimulation to the basal ganglia’s subthalamic nucleus (STN), via surgically implanted electrodes. While the mechanisms of how this therapy restores proper motor function remains under debate, one hypothesis is that the currents disrupt rhythmic, synchronous firing patterns present in basal ganglia structures of people with Parkinson’s disease. Our goal is to explore the effects of low amplitude, low frequency stimulation to the basal ganglia nucleus globus pallidus externus (Gpe), specifically whether this type of stimulation can disrupt pathological firing synchrony in GPe and STN. We use a conductance-based model of individual neurons in multicellular networks with varying patterns of short, depolarizing currents to mimic deep brain stimulation. Through this work we hope to discover novel patterns of deep-brain stimulation with the potential to eliminate pathological firing patterns of cells in the basal ganglia.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 7 (SCA7) belongs to a family of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by degeneration of Purkinje cell neurons (PC) within the cerebellum, which leads to motor dysfunction. The disease results from a CAG tract expansion mutation of the ataxin-7 gene. This type of expansion is common within the SCA family along with other neurological disorders like Huntington’s disease. Recent research has provided evidence for a non-cell autonomous degeneration of PCs, which means that other cell types cause the PCs to degenerate. One population of cells that may be involved is the inferior olive (IO). The IO, which is known to degenerate in humans, is made up of neurons and is located within the brainstem. The axons of the IO, known as climbing fibers, extend to the cerebellum and synapse with PCs. These climbing fibers transport neurotrophic factors to the PCs. We hypothesize that loss of neurotrophic factors due to the degeneration of climbing fibers may contribute to the disease state of SCA7.
To support this belief, we seek to characterize the climbing fibers by immunohistochemistry. I have stained cerebellar sections of non-transgenic and SCA7 positive mice for VGLUT2, a marker of climbing fiber terminals. In order to understand whether a change in climbing fibers occurs before or after presentation of the disease I have also stained sections from multiple time points. To analyze the differences between the groups I have focused on measuring the amount of VGLUT2 positive puncta in regions proximal and distal to the Purkinje cell soma. Preliminary results indicate that a change in distribution of puncta occurs in mice in the late stages of disease.
 

Centromeres in many species are found to reside near origins of replication that are activated early in S-phase, yet the biological significance of this conserved early replication of centromeres is unknown. Previous research has shown that the activation time of an origin is affected by its chromosomal location. A recent study has found that centromeres in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae advance the activation time of nearby origins, and that this effect depends on the centromere’s ability to establish a functional kinetochore. These observations lead to the hypothesis that centromeres need to be replicated early to allow sufficient time for the assembly of functional kinetochores. If kinetochores fail to be established in a timely fashion, chromosomes may not be correctly bi-orient at mitosis. Daughter cells therefore may inherit the incorrect number of chromosomes creating conditions of aneuploidy such as those found in Down syndrome and many cancers. I will test the importance of early centromere replication by deleting origins immediately flanking a yeast centromere to delay that centromere’s replication. I will then conduct an assay to test for the rate of chromosome mis-segregation events in the mutant strain compared to the wild-type strain. I anticipate that the mutant strain may have a higher rate of loss for the modified chromosome, suggesting that early replication of centromeres is important for maintaining genome stability. This project will also provide insights into the regulation of the temporal program of replication origin activation and provide the first functional test for the consequences of disrupting the temporal program of chromosome replication.

Sequencing the genome of an organism, or determining the order of the base pairs in its DNA, is one approach to understanding that organism’s chromosome structure.  Genome sequence assembly is accomplished with the help of computer programs, which often fail to include or map repetitious sequences in the final chromosome assembly.  One such unmapped sequence in the Lachancea waltii (L. waltii) yeast genome is the ribosomal DNA (rDNA), a sequence composed of hundreds of identical repeating segments that encodes the RNA component of ribosomes, the protein-producing machines in the cell.  My previous research has shown the rDNA is located in two large sequence gaps on chromosome 8, the only chromosome published incompletely as three separate segments of sequence.  My current research involves determining the order and orientation of these sequence scaffolds to verify and complete the assembly of L. waltii chromosome 8.  To investigate the arrangement of the three scaffolds, I am first performing indirect end labeling, where I am cleaving the chromosome with restriction enzymes to produce a specific fragmentation pattern.  Alignment of this pattern with that expected based on the proposed structure of chromosome 8 would validate the proposed chromosome structure and rDNA location.  In addition, I am performing a snap-back assay, a test that will indicate the orientation of the rDNA segment repeats – thereby verifying if the rDNA is present in one or two locations.  Finally, I am degrading the ends of chromosome 8 using an exonuclease – an end-specific enzyme – to determine the sequences, and thus the identity and orientation of the scaffolds, that are present at the chromosome ends.  By generating a complete, contiguous sequence of L. waltii chromosome 8, we hope to provide a more in-depth profile of this relatively uncharacterized yeast for future studies on chromosome evolution.

Vitamin A, whose active form in our body is all-trans-retinoic acid (atRA), is essential for normal embryonic development and many other biological functions. CYP26A1 is an isoform of cytochrome P450 enzyme which is responsible for atRA metabolism and elimination. Since we cannot synthesize vitamin A on our own, humans must consume vitamin A as nutrients. Because both too much and too little intake of the vitamin are detrimental, a tightly regulated feedback system controls the level of vitamin A circulating in the body. CYP26A1, which is shown to be strongly inducible by atRA, takes a major role in modifying atRA into its inactive forms. Common aryl hydrocarbon environmental toxins are also known to induce the activity of CYP26A1 by binding to aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). My current work aims to increase the understanding of the effects of environmental toxin on CYP26A1 in comparison to its other isoforms. I treated HepG2 cell line with varying concentration of 3-Methylcholanthrene (3MC) for 24 hours and quantified the amount of CYP26A1 mRNA. The results show that 3MC induces CYP26A1 transcription up to a certain toxic concentration. With better understanding of how common environmental toxins affect the health of an individual at a molecular level, it is possible to mediate the effects of the environmental toxins.

Speciation is the process by which one species becomes two species that can no longer interbreed. A common hypothesis is that infertility between closely related species is due to the rapid evolution of DNA double-strand-break hotspots that are active in meiosis. DNA double-strand-breaks play an important role in meiosis by initiating recombination after chromosome replication and can be repaired as crossovers. However, hotspots where most of the breaks happen are preferentially lost to gene conversion during DNA repair. It is a mystery how hotspots are maintained over evolutionary time when they are constantly destroyed during meiosis. We hypothesize that hotspots rapidly appear and disappear over evolutionary time, which results in speciation. Schizosaccharomyces kambucha and Schizosaccharomyces pombe are two very closely related fission yeast species that are 99.5% identical at the DNA sequence level. Mapping out the hotspots of Schizosaccharomyces kambucha and comparing them to those of Schizosaccharomyces pombe will be a useful way to test our hypothesis. For this experiment, we have created Schizosaccharomyces kambucha mutants that can no longer repair the breaks so that we can pull out the broken DNA pieces using Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and locate where the DNA double-strand-break hotspots are in the genome. We expect to see the hotspots of Schizosaccharomyces kambucha differ from those of Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which will support the hypothesis that the difference in DNA double-strand-hotspots is indeed contributing to speciation. This research can be extended further to explain speciation in other organisms or unexplained infertility between human couples.

Bacterial conjugation is a form of horizontal gene transfer that serves as an important source of genetic plasticity and diversity in both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. It has also been proved to be advantageous for dissemination of antibiotic resistance. Conjugation is a plasmid-mediated mechanism that allows single stranded DNA to be transferred across cell membranes from a donor to a recipient cell. In Escherichia coli, the conjugative F (fertility) plasmid encodes all necessary proteins for assembling the transfer apparatus thus allowing transfer and propagation of DNA into a recipient bacterial cell. Previous conflicting studies of bacterial conjugation in E. coli have shown DNA transfer to occur between donor and recipient pairs in intimate cell-cell contact or between distant donor and recipient pairs, connected only by the pilus, a filamentous protein extended from the donor cell. Using various fluorescent protein constructs to differentially mark donor and recipient cells and F plasmid DNA itself, we visualize conjugation in real time with single-cell resolution by fluorescent microscopy. Here we show that conjugation occurs only when donor and recipient cells are in intimate and close physical contact with each other. In addition, there appears to be no preference for cellular orientation for transfer. Furthermore, we propose a simple rate equation to model DNA transfer between bacteria and measure the rate of DNA transfer per unit time per cell contact. This quantitative model is a tool to elucidate conjugation at a single-cell scale and will provide a deeper understanding into the mechanism of bacterial conjugation.

Ubiquitin is a small post-translational signaling molecule. Its roles in repairing damaged DNA, apoptosis and protein degradation make it critical for tumor suppression. Genetic mutations affecting proteins in the ubiquitination pathway have been implicated in multiple inherited human cancers. The ubiquitination pathway attaches the protein ubiquitin (Ub) onto a substrate molecule with the help of three enzymes, ubiquitin activating enzyme (E1), ubiquitin conjugating enzyme (E2), and ubiquitin ligase (E3). Transfer of Ub onto the substrate requires the formation of a thioester bond between Ub and E2, denoted as E2~Ub. A catalytically active E3 ligase which can bind E2~Ub, but never directly binds Ub, is also necessary. E3’s catalytic mechanism is not fully understood. One function of E3 is to bring E2~Ub and substrate in close enough proximity to facilitate a reaction. However, E3 enhances the release of Ub from E2~Ub in the absence of substrate molecules. This suggests E3 plays a role in priming E2~Ub for transfer of Ub. Using site directed mutagenesis and protein-protein interaction assays visualized through western blotting, I have investigated what electrostatic properties of Ub are important for E3’s catalytic activity. Informative Ub mutations don’t stop formation of E2~Ub, but disrupt the catalytic activity of E3. I propose that polar/charged Ub residues in the contact region between Ub and E2 affect E2~Ub binding modes, promoting inhabitance of E2~Ub conformations favorable to Ub transfer upon binding of E3.

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) are pluripotent, or able to differentiate into all cell types of a developing embryo. They can be used to engineer human tissue, but are prone to immune rejection when used in medical treatment. Similar to hESCs but derived from the reprogramming of adult somatic cells, human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) were developed that have the potential for use in regenerative therapy with less risk of rejection. However, hiPSC research faces its own challenges, such as inefficient reprogramming rates and variation in observed pluripotency. Previous research has shown that methylation patterns of hESCs can be distinguished from hiPSCs at both the DNA and histone level, suggesting less pluripotency in hiPSCs than in hESCs. While exhibiting greater overall methylation on DNA but less on histones, many of the hypermethylated DNA regions of hESCs are adjacent to these differentially methylated histones. The location of the hypermethylated regions suggests that erasing specific histone methylation marks may improve hiPSC reprogramming rates by creating a more open chromatin landscape, and may create a cascade effect that allows for additional methylation of the genome. This experiment investigates the correlation between histone methylation and hiPSC reprogramming efficiency and accuracy. We reprogrammed human fibroblast cells with lentiviruses expressing various demethylases and transcription factors in order to compare resultant hiPSC methylomes to traditional hiPSC and hESC lines. Opening of the chromatin is expected to improve reprogramming rates and allow for proper methylation of the genome, creating an hiPSC closer in phenotype to hESCs and more useful for clinical therapies.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNA molecules that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression. MiRNA biogenesis involves two key ribonucleases, Drosha and Dicer. I am investigating the Drosha enzyme. Previous research from the Ruohola-Baker lab reveals that reducing levels of Drosha in stem cells significantly reduces levels of some miRNAs, while only slightly reducing levels of another group of miRNAs. This surprising result led us to conduct a bioinformatics analysis to identify characteristics that differentiate these two groups of miRNAs. We discovered structural differences, specifically that bulges in the central region of miRNAs were more frequent in heavily reduced miRNAs than in miRNAs that were not affected. My mentor, Henrik Sperber and I propose a model explaining why miRNAs with mismatches (bulges) in the central region of the sequence are more sensitive to reduced levels of Drosha than rigid miRNAs with no mismatches in that region. To test whether a bulge causes differential miRNA processing when Drosha is the limiting factor, I am adding and removing bulges to primary miRNA transcripts, overexpressing them in cells with low Drosha levels, and comparing their mature levels using qPCR. In addition, I am testing whether in nature cells vary Drosha levels as a mode of regulation. A previous study shows that T cells at specific stages of differentiation reduce Drosha expression by as much as 10 fold. My own bioinformatics analysis reveals that certain tissues in mice have an 8-fold reduction of Drosha. To see whether reduction of Drosha levels correlates with differential microRNA processing, I am using microarray data to find subsets of microRNAs that have dramatically reduced levels when Drosha expression is significantly low. With my research, I hope to discover a potentially novel mechanism of regulation in which cells alter Drosha levels to selectively process a subgroup of miRNAs.

Understanding stem cell maintenance is crucial for delineating conditions such as tissue loss, aging, and cancer. Using the Drosophila female germ-line stem cell (GSC) model to observe stem cells in vivo, several extrinsic and intrinsic factors have been demonstrated to regulate maintenance of Drosophila GSCs; they have also been found to be conserved in mammalian systems. The search is on for novel regulatory factors of stem cell maintenance with the hope of extending our understanding to stem cells in mammalian systems. My project involves the characterization of the molecular function of Pineapple eye gene (Pie), a novel regulator of GSC maintenance. Through a loss-of-function screen in GSCs, it has been demonstrated that mutations of pie result in GSC maintenance failure. The amino acid sequence of pie revealed that it contains ring-domains suggesting possible E3 ubiquitin ligase function. Such proteins are key components of the ubiquitination pathway, which are involved in protein tagging and degradation. To test pie’s function as an E3 ligase, I am using a novel assay that employs the fact that bacteria do not have endogenous ubiquitination pathway and therefore utilizes Escheria coli as an in vivo system to express the components of the ubiquitination pathway and detect the formation of ubiquitin chains, a key indicator of E3 Ligase activity. I have demonstrated that the expression of pie’s ring-domains without a substrate is not sufficient for the detection of ubiquitin chains. I will now test whether the full length pie is necessary for proper ubiquitination. Further, I will also test whether pie’s functional domain needs a substrate in order to function effectively. Successful characterization of pie can reveal new pathways to target for conditions involving stem cell maintenance.

Embryonic stem cells are isolated from the early developing embryo and are capable of forming the different cell types found in the body. Understanding how these cells develop and maintain their specialized state is critical to understanding how they function. We hypothesize that embryonic stem cells acquire a unique metabolic state that aids them in maintaining their specialized state. Using two distinct mouse pluripotent states, embryonic stem cells (ESC’s) and epiblast stem cells (EpiSC’s) representing cells isolated from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and the epiblast, a later stage in embryonic development, we found that EpiSC’s are much more glycolytic in terms of their energy usage compared to ESC’s as measured by oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification rates. Furthermore, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction experiments, we found that genes key to regulating and maintaining high rates of glycolysis are significantly upregulated in EpiSC’s compared to ESC’s. We showed that the overexpression of HIF1α, a known key regulator of these glycolytic genes, in ESC’s is able to shift the ESC’s towards a more glycolytic metabolic state and cellular morphology reminiscent of EpiSC’s. In addition, transition of ESC’s to EpiSC’s using the known chemical inducers Activin and Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 revealed that changes in the expression of metabolic genes occur prior to changes in expression of cell fate markers, which suggest that a metabolic transition in the ESC’s may be key in its transition to an EpiSC-like state.

A dance, a piece of art that is naturally ephemeral, is very difficult to preserve. Though it can be partially captured through film or notation, neither of these two-dimensional forms of archiving fully encapsulates the experience of a dance for either audience or performer. The only way to truly bring a dance to life is to perform it. Because a dance is at once a living participant and observer of the cultural context in which it was created, as well as a work of art, by researching and performing historical dances we can reach a more complete appreciation of culture past and present. A great part of the research done to better understand the historical role and importance of a dance will in fact come through the act of meticulously recreating the art work in the present day. This year the Chamber Dance Company researches and performs eleven works of dance by choreographers Ethel Winter, Helen Tamiris, Mary Wigman, Ruth St. Denis, Jean Erdman, Susan Marshall, and Louis Falco. We look for insights that elucidate historical issues of the time through embodying the movement. For example, in St. Denis' work we see cultural appropriation of Orientalism; in Tamiris we look at how and why a white Jewish American woman made dances about African American oppression; and in Wigman's work how dance was able to slip through the iron fist of Nazi censorship. This presentation will be a preview of the choreographed works to be performed by the Chamber Dance Company in October 2012.

   The stereoscopic image has risen and fallen in commercial popularity since its concepton in the late 19th century, but recent advances in computing and image technology have extended the medium's accessibility and popularity once more. At the UW, in the DXARTS department, I have spent the last year and a half examining the technical and aesthetic properties in stereoscopic pictures. My research and experiments have approached issues in projection surfaces, methods of compositing, graphics, and editing, and technical solutions for live-action stereo-photography. In addition to these practical issues, I also aim to fit my practice into a longer lineage of art-tradition, citing artists who have found the medium to be a fertile ground of expression. Today, my own efforts culminate into a single project as I plan a new work in stereo, and I hope to share video and still images of my experiments and completed works with the students at the University.

Haruki Murakami’s Kafka on the Shore is a novel that tells the story of two protagonists who never meet, Kafka and Nakata. They are on a journey across Japan in order to escape an Oedipal curse and elude the authorities for a murder that they both are connected to yet have no recollection. I am drawn to this story because it proposes the significance of self-awareness for the sake of cohesive understanding of oneself and, as a result, to those perceived as alien. My presentation takes the form of a nine minute solo performance of an inspired original enactment of Kafka’s clash with his conscious inner self, Crow, on the topic of the socially constructed reasons that motivate Kafka to return to Tokyo in order to clear matters with authorities as opposed to simply rejecting the arbitrary constructs that perpetuate the idea of duty. The narrative applies the theories of Michel Foucault’s Discipline and Punishment, supplemented by research into ideology and discourse, in order to establish the relevancy of discourse, a particular way of talking or thinking, which ideology, a system that maintains and reproduces the social relations of the prevailing social order which imposes on individuals a conception of themselves, is ingrained in, as a constructed condition. Because discourse is in language, a mode of communication, and ideology is ingrained in discourse, art, a series of coded signs manipulated to communicate a message, must also have associated ideology. Through the creative process of composition, the experiment attempts to fuse different modes of artistic disciplines in order to expose both the resonant and dissonant qualities of multiple ideologies colliding. The result of the experiment serves to evaluate the effectiveness of specific compositional tools in developing material based on the clarity and effectiveness of the delivery of the performance’s key concepts.

The Cordilleran Ice Sheet filled Puget Sound during the last ice age. Its maximum extent is defined by glacial deposits, including large "erratic" boulders, near Olympia in the southern Puget Lowland. The age of maximum glaciation can be determined using the build-up of cosmic ray produced nuclides in these rocks. We sampled two large granite erratics and separated quartz for analysis of cosmic ray produced Be-10. After dissolution, beryllium was extracted and purified, and the Be-10/Be-9 ratio measured by accelerator mass spectrometry. The Be-10 concentrations (approximately 75,000 atom/g) are used to calculate the time the boulders have been exposed to cosmic rays, and thus date the retreat of the Puget Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet from its maximum extent.

The transport of heavy metals in the environment poses serious threats to ecological and human health. One major factor that influences the transport of heavy metals in the environment is interactions with microbial surfaces. To better understand the influence that endospores, a ubiquitous microbial surface in the environment, have on metal transport, we studied cadmium and uranium adsorption onto endospore surfaces. We focused on three main experiments: how fast metal adsorbs to spore surfaces (kinetics), the extent of metal adsorption, and the reversibility of metal-spore adsorption. These data are essential to deriving thermodynamic parameters that may quantify the interactions under conditions not directly studied in the laboratory. The ultimate goal of this research is to give environmental engineers the ability to incorporate microbe-metal interactions into geochemical models of contaminant transport and possibly aid in optimizing bioremediation strategies using endospores.

Our goal is to use human adenovirus to investigate how human defensins interact with viral capsids to neutralize infection. Defensins are small antimicrobial peptides of the innate immune system that prevent bacteria and viruses from infecting their host, but the mechanisms by which defensins neutralize viruses are not yet well known. For human adenovirus (HAdV), we have shown that infection by serotype 5 (HAdV-5) is completely sensitive to defensins while that of HAdV-19c is resistant. Adenovirus is a non-enveloped DNA virus with an icosahedral capsid comprised primarily of the hexon protein. Fiber proteins attached to penton base proteins at the icosahedral vertices interact with host cells during cell entry. Previous studies showed that penton base and fiber proteins contain specific sequences important for conferring sensitivity to defensins. In order to identify these sequences in the HAdV-5 penton base protein, we constructed a number of chimeric viruses in which parts of the HAdV-5 penton base are replaced with the HAdV-19c penton base. Replacing the last half of HAdV-5 penton base, but not just the third or fourth quarters, with the corresponding sequence from the HAdV-19c penton base resulted in significant resistance to defensins. Based on these results, we created new chimeras by replacing the entire third quarter in combination with specific residues in the fourth quarter of the HAdV-5 penton base in order to determine exactly which residues confer resistance to defensins. After identifying these residues, we will create new chimeras by replacing the fourth quarter and mutating specific residues in the third quarter of the penton base. Together with quantitative binding studies to measure the impact of these changes on the defensin-adenovirus interaction, these studies will provide insight into the molecular mechanism of defensin-mediated neutralization of adenovirus that may be generalized to other non-enveloped viruses that are sensitive to defensins.

 In this project I explore how New Women and adolescent girls influenced each other within the context of changing gender ideals and perceptions of adolescence in the 1920s and 30s. I focus on this interaction specifically within Miss Ruth Brown’s Seattle Camp Fire Girls and the two girls’ camps she founded: Camp Sealth on Vashon Island and Four Winds Camp on Orcas Island in the San Juans. Uniquely, New Women such as Ruth Brown created space within summer camps and the Seattle Camp Fire Girls for white adolescent girls to be liberated from restrictive gender roles of the time. This liberation was not inevitable, nor was it universal. Ruth’s camps were examples of more liberating spaces, yet not every white Seattle Camp Fire girl attended them, and the racialization of Miss Ruth’s fantasy play and "gypsy" culture, which was liberating for some, perpetuated the racialization of the ideal womanhood. In studying Ruth Brown and her sphere of influence I deeply analyze changing female roles in the 1920s and 30s. I have analyzed many primary sources concerning these topics including issues of the Seattle Camp Fire Girl’s periodical during this time, poems written by Ruth Brown, newspaper articles, and other literature of the time concerning adolescent girls. In pursuing this research I will provide a deeper history for both Camp Sealth and Four Winds, still active camps in Washington. I aim to do this not only through completing an analytical, 40-50 page undergraduate thesis by March 2012 and presenting at the 2012 University of Washington Undergraduate Research Symposium, but by writing an accessible, exciting hi-story of Ruth Brown, the Seattle Camp Fire Girls, and summer camps in the Seattle area by June 2012 for distribution to campers and camp alumni.

Ulnar-Mammary Syndrome (UMS) is a congenital syndrome that is characterized by ulnar abnormalities and breast hypoplasia. The Bamshad Lab discovered that UMS is caused by mutations in the gene, TBX3. The goal of our project is to find novel TBX3 mutations that cause UMS, and expand the knowledge of how different mutations correlate to the severity of the disease. We collected DNA samples from three UMS families, and sequenced the exons of TBX3 via Sanger sequencing. Sequence analysis software allowed us to search the sequence for mutations and their locations within the gene. In the family K31928, previous screening showed that the proband and her sister, have a mutation called 1294_1301dup8. We screened the parents for mutations in TBX3, and we found that the father had the insertion mutation as well. The father’s clinical findings were very mild, but this screening confirmed that he passed the mutation causing UMS to his daughters. No mutations were found in members of the other two UMS families. The next step of this project is to investigate, in the families without TBX3 mutations, other candidate genes, as well as regulatory regions of TBX3, for mutations that could cause UMS.

Autosomal DNA, the non-recombining Y chromosome (NRY), and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) are all efficient means of predicting an individual's genetic ancestry. Commercially available autosomal DNA ancestry estimates are obtained using loci that show large frequency differences between continental groups known as ancestry informative markers (AIMs), and NRY and mtDNA ancestry estimates rely on haplogroup information to trace an individual's genetic lineage. Since autosomal DNA is bi-parentally inherited and the NRY and mtDNA are uni-parentally inherited, autosomal DNA potentially contains more information regarding an individual's genetic heritage than the NRY or mtDNA. Our goal is to determine the accuracy of NRY and mtDNA ancestry estimates for predicting autosomal DNA ancestry. Ancestry estimates have been obtained for 965 individuals from a global panel of human populatins from the Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP-CEPH). Ancestry estimates were compared based on one's biogeographical ancestry or the geographic location of one's ancestors. Autosomal DNA ancestry was determined by the greatest proportion of ancestry based on seven biogeographic groups: African, European, Middle Eastern, Central/South Asian, East Asian, Oceanian, and American. Since each haplogroup is associated with a biogeographic group, the accuracy of NRY and mtDNA haplogroups in predicting autosomal DNA ancestry was determined based on a statistically signifcant number of individuals classified with their correct autosomally determined biogeographical ancestry. This information is useful to assess the quality of different ancestry estimations for use in population-based studies and direct-to-consumer ancestry tests. 

What is the effect of corporate environmental performance (EP) and social performance (SP) on financial performance (FP)? Conducting research on the effects of environmental performance and social performance on financial performance could encourage corporations to engage in more sustainable business operations. The potential benefits of better environmental performance and social performance range from a cleaner environment to healthier societies. Therefore, the goal of this research is to investigate the relationships among SP, EP, and FP. Freeman’s stakeholder theory (1984), defined as integrating (through who and what, processes, and allocating resources) multiple stakeholders, who affect and are affected by the firm on multiple issues (i.e. their “stakes”), is the basis for testing the following hypotheses. H1: Better environmental performance leads to higher financial performance. H2: Better social performance leads to higher financial performance. Our sample, which includes 90 Fortune 500 publically traded companies from the US, Europe, and Asia, represents a variety of industries. Environmental, social responsibility, and financial performance data were extracted from 2008 and 2009 annual financial and sustainability reports. We analyzed the data with descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and linear regression. If research findings reveal positive correlations among environmental, social responsibility, and financial performance, corporations will find it beneficial to be environmentally and socially responsible. The current study may contribute to the literature and managerial practices in two ways. First, reduced pollution, waste, and energy used can lower costs to corporations, thereby increasing profits, while benefiting the planet. Second, better relations with stakeholders can enhance the firm’s reputation thus financial performance.

There is a high need for transitional housing in areas affected by natural disasters, particularly transitional housing that is permanent, high performing, economical, and sustainable. Current solutions, predominantly large tents, do not provide a satisfactory living state for the tens of thousands of people displaced by these natural disasters. Alternate housing options have been developed and implemented, but the response of these alternatives under seismic loading has not been sufficiently studied. A promising alternative is the use of strategically stacked earthbags in combination with frictional material between the bags, strapping, and render for aesthetic purposes. The placement and configuration of these materials impacts the flexural and shear response of the entire housing system. Through modeling force versus deflection of various models, we can predict the response of the earthbag structure. Using strategic bag placements and placement of restraining components, the goal is to quantify the response of the structure. We anticipate that weaving strapping throughout the bags will provide more resistance to buckling and failure in the configurations discussed throughout this paper. By quantifying the relationship of materials and response, we can design an economical and viable transitional housing solution to respond more predictably under earthquake loading. The design of this structure can provide an economical, accessible, and easily constructible housing alternative.

Spreading equity in the public education system for the deaf community is essential as it decreases educational disparities. Recent studies have shown many African American deaf students share similar experiences in different communities as such they feel segregated from individuals from hearing culture (Clark, 2010). This is significant as many deaf students expressed concerns about communicating with hearing culture since ASL is not a common language found in our mainstream society. By using the participant observation method and from compiling surveys that acknowledges the services the deaf community would like to see in an education setting, we hope provide insight into a service that can be successful to the deaf community in a hearing academic environment. In other words, the goal of our project is to find ways students with such disabilities can receive the support necessary to be successful in the classroom. This can be achieved by creating a translating system into a laptop that inputs sounds projected from source, and then translates the speech sounds into ASL. We hope that it would increase interaction between hearing and Deaf culture as well as increase one of the many opportunities deaf individuals can use to communicate. It will also help them become academically successful within public schools that do not cater to the needs of deaf students. We hope that our idea would increase empathy for the deaf community as well as inspire ideas to spread equity to all minority groups in an academic environment.

I am interested in exploring the culture of gymnastics and the linkages between the social norms and the pressure for female gymnasts to have a certain body image. I will be looking at the insider and outsider perspectives of the gymnastics culture. Do insiders and outsiders of the gymnastics culture see the social problems and the emphasis on the body of a gymnast differently? This connects to the current research by Melford S. Weiss who did a research project and wrote an article called Culture, Context and Content Analysis: An Exploration of Elite Women Gymnasts in the High School World. There has also been research done by Trent A. Petrie and Eva M. Krentz, who both wrote articles about eating disorders in gymnastics. I will use the methods of interviews, positionality, and participant observation to analyze my question. This research matters to society because the culture of gymnastics is largely hidden to outsiders, but it is a culture that teaches these young women how to face adversity. Sometimes the gymnastics culture gets pushed under the rug because people do not understand it, but if more people could learn about it maybe more people would understand why gymnasts have such a struggle with social norms and body image. 

The volume of glaciers and ice sheets controls global sea level and plays a major role in climate change. However, it is difficult to reconstruct the history of glaciers and ice sheets from their deposits because these deposits are commonly overrun and re-worked in each successive glaciation. An alternative approach is to measure cosmic-ray-produced nuclides, such as isotopes Beryllium-10, Aluminium-26, and Chlorine-36 (in order of decreasing half-life) in bedrock. These nuclide concentrations build-up due to cosmic ray exposure during interglacial periods when glaciers are at their smallest extent. The present day concentrations are the cumulative result of exposure during ice-free periods and radioactive decay during periods of ice cover. By working with nuclides of different half-lives, we can obtain information about the long-term glacial history. We are measuring these nuclides in samples from elevation transects on mountains beside Scott Glacier and Beardmore Glacier in Antarctica. Concentrations of all three increase with elevation. Summit samples have Be-10 and Al-26 concentrations close to saturation levels, but lower Cl-36 concentrations. This suggests that ice cover during glacial periods was thicker and more prolonged in the last 0.5 – 1 Myr than the 2-5 Myr average. In contrast, samples from the base of these mountains have lower and more uniform concentrations of the three nuclides, which is consistent with glacial erosion of the surfaces. Measuring depth profiles in the Beardmore Glacier samples will allow us to test this interpretation.

Zebrafish have a defined striped pattern that results from pigment cell differentiation and migration during development, and this developmental process provides a good model for studying the process of boundary formation. Elucidating the mechanisms by which boundaries are formed is critical for understanding vertebrate development, and will give insight into what might cause them to malfunction during metastasis where cancer cells invade other tissue types, thus breaking the boundaries that have formed. While zebrafish have these defined patterns, a closely related species, the pearl danio, lacks stripes and instead has different pigment cell types intermingled. We hypothesize that the pearl danios have lost the mechanism for pigment cell boundary formation found in zebrafish and my goal is to identify genetic differences between the two species that could have caused this change pattern development. Preliminary RNA sequencing has identified candidate genes that appear to be differentially expressed. I am using in situ hybridization to compare the expression patterns of candidate genes between the two species. This is a technique where whole larval fish are incubated with RNA probes which are complimentary to the mRNAs of the genes I am screening for. Wherever the candidate genes are transcribed into mRNA, and thus expressed, the probe will hybridize. I am able to visualize this through labeling of the probe and staining with antibodies. I expect to find that some of the candidate genes will have different patterns of expression between the two species. This result will indicate that these genes are involved in the pigment pattern formation process, although it will not explain their specific function. However, once I know which genes are involved I will be able to manipulate their expression through knockdown or over-expression, which will provide further insight on the mechanisms of boundary formation in pigment patterns.

The Fourth Amendment requires police officers to obtain probable cause before conducting search and seizures. In Terry v. Ohio (1968), the Supreme Court held that reasonable suspicion—more than a mere hunch, but less than probable cause—was enough to justify a temporary street stop and a pat-down for weapons. This article identifies the Terry (1968) case as a landmark turning point in the history of American criminal justice. The reduced standards of the Court's 1968 ruling directly resulted in an unparalleled increase in incarceration and set precedent for the following half-century of pro-police jurisprudence. This article coins the term “Terry umbrella” to refer to the kit of Terry-inspired tools that subsequent cases either revamped or established from scratch. The surge in proactive policing has disproportionately affected people of color, particularly young black and Latino males. This article refers to this unequal enforcement as Terryism, as it was made possible by the Court's 1968 ruling. The recent rulings of the Roberts Court in particular are examined. 

Seyfert galaxies are a type of galaxy that is part of a larger class called active galactic nuclei (AGN) in which the central supermassive black hole is accreting surrounding material. On large scales, Seyfert galaxies look identical to quiescent galaxies in which the supermassive black hole is inactive. However, on a smaller scale, around 10 – 10³ parsecs, we are now starting to detect differences in the molecular gas and stellar properties that can help us reach our goal of determining what the key differences are between the Seyfert galaxies and the quiescent galaxies and what results in the generation of an AGN. One of these differences could be star formation at the nucleus of the galaxy. To determine if this is a factor, we can use spatially resolved 2-D spectra to detect any Brackett Gamma (Brγ) emission within the central 10³ pc. For galaxies that have Brγ emission, we can measure the equivalent width of the Brγ line and, through comparison with stellar population evolution models, constrain the age of the stars. A potential complication with using the Brγ line is that there can be an additional broad component of the line generated by high velocity clouds very near the central black hole that is not associated with star formation. We minimize the impact of this broad component by fitting and removing it to isolate the narrow line emission of interest. The age can also be further constrained by estimating the supernova rate and the mass-to-light ratio. We have found that Brγ is significantly more prominent in Seyfert galaxies than in quiescent galaxies, suggesting that there is more active star formation in the nuclear region of Seyfert galaxies. Constraining the age of this stellar population will determine the role of these stars in fueling the central AGN in these galaxies.

Astronomers do not yet completely understand how galaxies evolve. Current leading theories propose that spiral galaxies merge and the result is an ultra-luminous infrared galaxy or ULIRG, which is a galaxy with an active galactic nuclei (AGN) that is obscured by warm dust and gas. After the ULIRG phase, it is thought that the galaxy becomes a quasar after a blowout stage occurs. The blowout stage is when the huge energy output from the accretion process of material falling into the central black hole expels the gas that was previously obscuring the central quasar. The blowout stage would be short-lived, however, and therefore difficult to directly observe, so evidence of this process is scarce. In order to study the blowout stage, we obtained 2-D K-band integral field data with SINFONI (Spectrograph for Integral Field Observations in the Near Infrared) on the Very Large Telescope for a sample of six quasars that are divided into pre- and post–blowout by comparing their ratios of infrared luminosity to the luminosity of the optical 'big blue bump’. We measured the spatial distribution and column density of the warm molecular gas but did not find the correlation of these quantities predicted by blowout models. To further explore the relationship between post- and pre-blowout galaxies, we fit the luminosity profiles of the molecular gas and compare this to the profiles of the stellar population which traces the gravitational potential.

I examined the use of prosthetics in mainstream sports with an emphasis on track and field. I researched the development of prosthetics over time and how the view of them has changed in our society. There was a time when a disabled athlete competing alongside an able-bodied athlete was seen as purely inspirational. However, now athletes using prosthetics are getting penalized. Aimee Mullins was the first amputee to compete in Division I track. She broke barriers for disabled athletes in the mid-1990s, and now with astonishment those barriers are being restored (Angel 2008). This connects to current research that was done by Ian Brittain in “Perceptions of Disability and their Impact Upon Involvement in Sport for People with Disabilities at all Levels”. I will used the methods of photovoice and media analysis to analyze my question. I believe that this is a timely topic in not only the world of sports, but in an anthropological view of our culture as a whole. More and more young men are returning from war with missing limbs, and their use of prosthetics is viewed differently from the usage of disabled athletes. This research matters because of the increasing controversy surrounding the idea of an unfair advantage. Oscar Pistorius is a South African sprinter who is a double amputee. He uses a type of prosthetic called Cheetah-Flex-Foot Legs, and because of these prosthetics the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) has been banned him from competing in the Olympics. With the advance of technology rising, prosthetic limbs are being engineered more efficiently than they were in the past. This technology should not be a set back that restores the barriers disabled athletes have overcome.

I am interested in examining how masculinity is portrayed in a male dominant sport such as hockey and how females position themselves in this sport, specifically focusing on female players, fans and females in hockey media. This connects to current research by Marie Hardin about cultural norms and hype masculinity, as well as Christine Baker’s case study about women’s basketball and Bill Buford’s work regarding hyper masculinity and soccer. As hyper masculinity is a large part of Hockey, it is important to acknowledge and accept women hockey players on the N.C.A.A level. According to Klein in the New York Times he states, “(t)he concussion rate in N.C.A.A. women’s ice hockey is 2.72 per 1,000 player hours. For men’s ice hockey it’s 1.47 per 1,000. Even for N.C.A.A. football, the rate is 2.34 per 1,000 which is lower than it is for the women on the ice.” By examining these statistics as well as many others such as the number of women’s hockey teams in the US and the number of professional women hockey players, I will be able to conclude how females place themselves in the hockey world. I will use the methods of photovoice, twitter, videogames, media and movies to further analyze my question. This research matters since gender equality should be present in every sport especially in the twenty-first century. In a continuously changing society women should have a strong influence on the masculine sport Hockey and not only break the social norms and barriers that exist but also break the geographical and regional opinions on the sport.

Somali women immigrants have significant trauma histories related to their experiences of torture, rape, and displacement. They commonly present with somatic complaints for which there is no "medical explanation" and few acceptable or helpful treatment options. A community health program, Daryel, was started 3 years ago by a nurse at Harborview Medical Center to address somatic pain among Somali women through yoga and massage. Daryel primarily serves women over 50 years of age who are not fluent in English. This project consists of preparatory work for the development of a culturally congruent training manual for Health Care Practitioners working with Somali women. The following three methods will guide training manual development: 1) Conducting a literature review using databases such as ETHNOMED, CINHAL, PUBMED and gathering background on Somali traditional medicine, beliefs, and the cultural practices of Muslim women with regard to health; 2) Participating in individual conversations with Somali women and the Health Care Practitioners who serve them; and 3) Outreach to massage therapists who have stopped volunteering at Daryel with a set of questions on their volunteer experience. The results: 1) Findings based on the literature review show that taking time to establish rapport, understanding Somali culture and traditions, listening to their explanatory model of illness, and working skillfully with interpreters are important factors that will help gain success with Somali women patients; 2) Conversations with Somali women in Seattle confirm that a program such as Daryel is helpful for Somali women immigrants; 3) A survey of past and current volunteer Massage Therapists showed they want more training on Somali culture and language. In conclusion, a culturally congruent training manual will aid Health Care Practitioners in providing essential quality care to Somali women immigrants.

The longevity of an organism is influenced both by internal (genetic) and external (environmental) factors. With respect to internal factors, a significant effort is being made to identify novel pharmacological agents that extend lifespan by targeting genetic pathways with a defined role in the aging process. On the external side, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the positive influence of environmental interventions, such as dietary restriction and mild stress, are being widely explored. The environment experienced by humans in modern societies already contains countless compounds that may influence longevity. Understanding the role that the most prevalent of these compounds play in the aging process will be important to predicting and interpreting the outcome of introducing new interventions. Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive drug worldwide. Prior studies indicate that caffeine may positively impact age-associated neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s. In the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, we observe that low concentrations of caffeine extend lifespan in worms in a temperature-dependent manner. Initial evidence from experiments combining caffeine with previously identified aging interventions suggests caffeine may increase life span by reducing signaling through the insulin/IGF pathway. We have also shown that caffeine delays pathology in a worm model of polyglutamine disease. Additionally, caffeine and dietary restriction by bacterial deprivation show non-additive life span extension, suggesting that they impact aging through a similar mechanism. Our initial effort is focused on characterizing the effect of caffeine on longevity and health span, and exploring the interplay between caffeine and other aging interventions.

Multiple Sclerosis is a disease characterized by inflammation and demyelination in the central nervous system. Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a mouse model used to study MS. Previous studies have shown that EAE can be induced by helper T cells of both the Th17 (IL-17 producing) and Th1 (IFNg-producing) lineages. In classic EAE induced by Th1 cells, inflammation is observed predominantly in the spinal cord, however in our model of atypical EAE, induced by transfer of Th17-skewed cells, inflammation is observed in both the brain and spinal cord. This atypical model is closer to the disease course of MS in humans, because only rarely do MS patients have spinal cord inflammation without accompanying brain inflammation. Using mice that lack IL-17RA, a protein required for IL-17 signal transduction, we can study the mechanism of IL-17-induced inflammation in the brain versus the spinal cord. In our model we have shown that IL-17 promotes neutrophil recruitment to the brain, but is not required for neutrophil recruitment to the spinal cord. The presence of neutrophils in the spinal cord in IL-17 receptor knockout mice suggests some other mechanism must be used to recruit neutrophils in the spinal cord. Using RT-PCR we have been looking at the role of other factors (IFN-g, CXCL5, CXCL2, CXCL1, GMCFS, and IL-1b) in recruiting neutrophils in spinal cord independent of IL-17.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by persistent airflow limitation that is usually progressive and associated with an enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the airways and the lung to noxious particles or gases (GOLD, 2011). There are two classes of medications to treat COPD, bronchodilators and corticosteroids. Some patients are prescribed multiple inhalers to maximize treatment effectiveness. Correct inhaler technique is important to ensure proper deposition of medications in the airways; however, administration techniques vary across devices. This raises the question as to if there is a relationship between the number of prescribed inhalers with patients’ confidence in their inhaler technique and medication behavior. We hypothesized that patients using multiple inhalers would have decreased confidence in their inhaler technique and adherence to inhaler use may be lower. To answer this question, we used data collected from an ongoing longitudinal observational study looking at biological causes and functional consequences of depression in COPD patients. Our analyses showed that patients who were on 3 or more inhalers had the same level of confidence in taking their inhalers correctly as patients who were on 2 or fewer inhalers. They also did not differ in forgetting to take or being careless about their medications compared to patients who took fewer inhalers. In addition, they were no less likely to take their inhalers when there were changes in their daily routine. These results refute our hypothesis, and instead, demonstrate that there is no relationship between the number of prescribed inhalers and inhaler technique confidence and medication behavior.

Essentially all growth and developmental processes in plants require action of the hormone auxin. Auxin regulates gene expression by mediating the degradation of repressor proteins called Aux/IAAs. At low concentrations of auxin, these IAA proteins repress auxin-responsive genes by binding to auxin response factor (ARF) activating transcription factors. A subset of ARF and IAA proteins are involved in the initiation of new lateral roots, which are important for overall root architecture and function. Mutant phenotypes in these ARFs and IAAs fall into two separate classes. Based on this evidence, we hypothesize that the structural properties of specific ARF and IAA proteins cause them to have specific binding preferences. For example, we predict that ARF5 has stronger binding preference for IAA12 than IAA14, while ARF7 has stronger preference for IAA14. To test interactions between these proteins, we are expressing them in the yeast, S. cerevisiae. This allows us to look at individual protein interactions at single cell resolution, which is not possible using a plant based system due to the ubiquity of auxin responses and the presence of multiple IAAs and ARFs. We are using a bimolecular fluorescence complementation approach, in which two complementary halves of fluorescent proteins are fused to two interacting proteins of interest. Specifically, we have fused halves of different fluorescent proteins to IAAs and ARFs, such that each specific IAA-ARF complex exhibits a different color of fluorescence. Using this system, we will compete two different IAA proteins for binding of a single ARF. This approach will allow us to analyze the binding preferences of proteins through quantitative comparison of fluorescence of protein complexes. The results of my research may explain some of the specificities between ARF and IAA mutant phenotypes found in Arabidopsis and how distinct protein properties lead to differences in gene expression and development.

This study will analyze whether body composition norms within the sport of running are reproducing unhealthy eating habits that may lead to eating disorders, specifically among females. Current research shows that being skinnier does not directly correlate with running faster. It is common for female runners to reduce food intake to unhealthily low levels in an attempt to adhere to female perceptions of thinness. The method of photovoice will be used to display images of obsessive thinness within the sport. Negative norms are reproduced repetitively in running-related media without any significant opposition, the most common dealing with obsessive thinness and compulsive eating disorders, including anorexia and bulimia. Analysis of the Nike Cross Nationals videogame, social media such as Twitter, and advertising within the sport of track and field will be used to determine why these norms are reproduced when it is detrimental to the current and future health of the athletes. In addition, I will draw on my positionality as a female collegiate runner to develop a greater understanding of the social pressure related to body weight. Research will analyze how advancements in technology and social media exacerbate the prevalence of unhealthy body weights in the sport of running. Contribution to this area of research is vital because it has the power to reach a community lost in the obsession of thinness and reestablish norms for healthier lifestyles among runners, both competitive and recreational.

Our world is becoming increasingly integrated with motion sensor technology. However, the usefulness of motion sensor data is still vague and difficult to understand. Several applications using sensor infrastructure in the home, often referred to as smart homes, aim to support independence for older adults. The goal of this project is to try to understand smart homes for aging in place in general and complex motion sensor data within independent retirement communities. Our focus is in trying to understand how aggregated motion sensor data can be useful for clinicians, patients and family members, how to present aggregated motion sensor data, and how to proactively manage health to support aging in place. Our group is implementing ubiquitous motion sensors in independent retirement communities to assess mobility. Various parameters that influence mobility, including cognitive ability, psychosocial activity, and environmental characteristics, are noted and integrated into the data. The projects goal is to evaluate mobility in older adults and consider actions or treatments to prevent disease onset or discomfort. Preliminary findings from the ongoing longitudinal feasibility study provide strength to the argument that motion sensors may provide a supporting role for aging in place.

Plants use hormone-signaling pathways to regulate growth and development. Brassinosteroids (BRs) are critical plant hormones that regulate growth such as the elongation of the embryonic stem. We study the specific mechanism of this process by testing the hormone-induced growth responses of both wild type and mutant Arabidopsis seedlings. We are testing whether growth repressor SPATULA is involved in BR growth response. We hypothesized that the growth repressor SPATULA is downstream of the BR pathway. To test this hypothesis, we acquired mutants that lack SPATULA function. After confirming the genotype of the mutants by PCR, we used a high-resolution camera to observe growth throughout early development in response to hormone treatments. Data is recorded by the camera over the course of 132 hours. The images are then analyzed and growth rates are calculated. Using these data, we determined if SPATULA is involved in the BR growth response.

Many neurological diseases that are prevalent in our society, as well as serious addictions, affect one’s ability to make optimal decisions. In order to provide further insight on these conditions, the underlying mechanisms and processes of decision-making must first be determined. Previous research shows that the inactivation of amygdala during bouts of stress blocks any stress effects on later decision-making performance. This study aims to answer how this occurs by determining the necessary brain structures for the decision-making task. Because prefrontal cortex lesions have not disrupted decision making on the task in earlier studies, lesions of subcortical regions should negatively affect decision making. Specifically, we lesion the central and basolateral nuclei of the amygdala, or the dorsomedial striatum of several rats, two subcortical regions known to be strongly associated with reward-related behavior. Decision making is assessed through a series of baseline and bias tests on a figure-8 maze. The rats run through a series of equal-reward baseline sessions on the maze, then switch to bias testing for three days (unequal reward), and finally are tested on reverse bias (unequal reward, larger side switched). It is suspected that significant decision-making impairments will be seen after either the amygdala or the dorsomedial striatum is lesioned.

I feel that agenda setting and social identity theories are important elements to consider when studying assumptions and impressions created by consumer media, especially when looking at the effect on youth populations. In my current class we are looking at many critical analysis’s regarding imagery surrounding sports and athletes. I am interested in identifying topics being expressed in community/individual sports related art that are not expressed in mainstream sports media. I would like to address, specifically, effects of media representations on children. I have used the photovoice, social mapping and participant observation methods to study forms of art from both parties and assessed effects on the general public and myself. I will also use discourse analysis, focus groups and interviewing techniques in the coming weeks. Significant data that I have collected includes: identification of art forms that use sports to express issues, including graffiti, athlete art, corporate ads, pecha kucha sessions, Olympic art, photovioce projects, individual art and community art projects. I have identified fabricated realities and over articulated topics by media representations such as: norms regarding sexuality, criminality and leadership. I have also identified experienced realities by community members and individuals such as: disempowerment, empowerment, rejection of fabricated norms, and oppression. This research will contribute to the identification of issues inherent to youth populations that are exposed to large quantities of sports media. With my work I aim to reinforce efforts by communities and individuals to raise awareness for affected parties. Successful completion of this work will raise awareness about existing negative mainstream media, norms forming issues and provide positive substitutes for the youth population.

Through social media, images, and news stories, professional and collegiate athletes are shown to the public. This serves as a much larger platform for the younger generation to be heavily influenced positively and negatively. Unfortunately, the identities of male athletes of color in the major sports of football, basketball and track and field have been challenged through stereotypes that have developed over time by forms of media and social constructions. Observing and analyzing men of color within the world of collegiate athletics exposes the concerning stereotypes that belittle the talent and skill that these athletes possess. Features that will be focused on are masculinity, cultural representation and identity within the sports of football, basketball and track and field. Masculinity will be analyzed through the ways in which male athletes envision themselves through an outside perspective and the manner in which they present themselves during competition as well as off the field, court or track. Cultural representation, which may relate to masculinity, will be analyzed by how the athletes regard themselves both during competition and their social lives according to their specific ethnic background. In order to research the issue of identity, both cultural representation and masculinity will be considered through a series of interviews which will ask the athlete recognizes their identity and its relationship with his sport. Other features such as photo voice and social mapping within their respective sports will be thoroughly analyzed to determine how the stereotypes of the aforementioned three components are clearly present in magazine advertisements, websites and local newspapers. Since collegiate athletics is increasingly becoming popular in America, high school events such as recruiting, sports websites and national signing day will also be taken into consideration in order to fully grasp the concept of stereotypes amongst male athletes of color in collegiate sports.

We are interested in exploring the discourse of race in basketball. This connects to theories by Branch who discussed the commodification of male athletes of color, ideas by Goss who demonstrates that representations in the media of athletes ofcolor are often presented as hyper masculine and criminal. We specifically looked at Sports Illustrated, ESPN, NBA.com, Seattle Times and other popular sports magazines and seen how basketball players are portrayed. We’ve also research video games and analyzed interviews to explore our research project. This research makes an important contribution because it exposes how the bodies of male athletes of color are used for entertainment value, and how this limits the talents and abilities of these athletes.

Ozone in surface air is toxic to both humans and plants, and has negative implications to human health and crop yields. Surface ozone is enhanced by anthropogenic emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, which are a direct result of fuel combustion and other industrial activities. Yet, the highest concentrations of ozone in California are often observed in the foothills of the Sierra Nevadas, some 50-100 kilometers from the urban plumes of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. How anthropogenic emissions affect ozone in areas strongly influenced by biogenic emissions remains a critical question in our understanding of air quality, with implications for control strategies. To examine these issues we are using data from two multi-year atmospheric chemistry field measurement campaigns: CALNEX SJV and BEARPEX. CALNEX SJV took place in 2010 near Bakersfield, CA, an area heavily influenced by urban and agricultural emissions. The BEARPEX 2007 and 2009 campaigns took place in Blodgett Forest, CA, a rural forested area primarily influenced by biogenic emissions. We are quantifying the extent to which anthropogenic emissions of hydrocarbons affect ozone production in these two regimes by performing a statistical analysis of a unique set of chemical indicators, acyl peroxynitrates, or APN. APN are produced in the atmosphere during the photochemical degredation of hydrocarbons that leads to ozone production. APN carry a fingerprint of an anthropogenic or biogenic hydrocarbon precursor. Through linear combination modeling of ozone using various APN compounds and trend analysis along independent axes such as temperature and day of week, we estimate the relative importance of anthropogenic and biogenic hydrocarbons. Moreover, by comparing data from these two sites, we provide a much broader understanding of such effects in both rural and urban areas.

I am interested in examining concepts of masculinity in male football fans as influenced by advertising. This is especially important to investigate as advertising is based on establishing a need in a consumer base, often through implications or assertions of worthlessness or incompleteness, and offers a product as a means of making the consumer whole while football in general is considered a masculine sport. I will use the methods I noted as effective in an article by Jabari Mahiri entitled; African American males and learning: what discourse in sports offers schooling (Mahiri1994), such as interviewing and participant observation. I will also conduct my research and observations of fans by observing directly the interactions of said persons and the language they use and the equipment they maintain such as sports clothing and footwear. Special interest will be taken in regards to brand loyalty and affiliation of equipment used by fans as this equipment is advertised aggressively at them and makes reference to masculinity. This research is significant because it showcases influence on fans of football by advertising and examines its effect on what it is to be masculine.

I concentrated on Haiti and how they have used sports to cope with the earthquake in 2010. They used sports as a way for mental and physical rebuilding. Sports allow leaders to emerge and provide positive influences to children and show the importance of media and power. By Haiti making sports teams that are constructed of people rising above their injuries, they are showing the world they can move forward. If media only shows the devastating events of the earthquake and not how people have overcome it, they are neglecting the whole truth. The methods I used are photovoice, data analysis and interviews. This research matters because if sports can be used to increase morale after a traumatic event then they should be incorporated into schools. By examining the impact of sports in rebuilding, I have observed how determined people can rise above the devastating events and continue life. This shows how sports can be used to direct and encourage people, especially in lower socio-economic status.

The harmful bloom-forming alga, Heterosigma akashiwo, has a dual-stage life cycle, transitioning between a vegetative, motile stage in the water column and a resting, non-motile stage in the sediments. Previous observations have revealed a large shift in neutral lipid content as cells transition between vegetative and resting life stages. The relative neutral lipid content per cell decreases as cells enter the resting stage, followed by a rapid synthesis of neutral lipids once cells emerge from the resting stage. Neutral lipid bodies are thought to be a source of cell energy reserves. The purpose of my research is to study how fatty acid profiles shift in H. akashiwo during these life cycle transitions. Understanding changes in fatty acid profiles is important in understanding how cells respond to changes in environmental conditions and how lipids are used in metabolic processes. In this study, two strains of H. akashiwo (CCMP 452 and UWC 13.03) are signaled to enter the resting stage by putting cell cultures into the dark at 10 °C for 18 days. Resting cells are activated by exposing the cultures to growth supporting conditions of light and increased temperature (12 °C). Cell viability and relative neutral lipid content is determined by staining with the SYTOX-Green DNA stain and the BODIPY505/515 neutral lipid stain, respectively, using flow cytometry. Fatty acid profiles are determined using an established gas chromatography- mass spectrometry method developed in the Cattolico laboratory. I will report on the outcomes of the fatty acid profiling for H. akashiwo over the alga’s dual-stage life cycle. I anticipate distinct change in the fatty acid profiles between these life stages.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a pediatric disorder of higher executive functioning which may persist into adulthood. This disorder is estimated to affect 5.4 million children aged 4 to 17. Neuroimaging evidence suggests the underlying neuropathology is characterized by a delayed, but otherwise typical, brain maturation process. A previous study analyzed electroencephalograms (EEG) recorded from children (aged 10 to 13) while they were actively anticipating visual stimuli. They found under-connectivity (a) within the frontal lobes and (b) between the frontal and parietal lobes in the ADHD group. These data were consistent with a delay in cortical maturation in the ADHD group. This project builds upon the results of the previous study by examining the eyes closed, resting state-EEG recorded from the same children (42 ADHD and 21 controls) at the same recording session. Cortical maturation is assessed using dense array EEG coherence spectra to characterize functional connectivity differences between groups. We are investigating if the previously demonstrated connectivity differences are static in respect to behavioral state or if these differences are a function of cognitive demands.

The diatoms are a prolific and productive group of phytoplankton belonging to the Phylum Heterokontophyta. They are responsible for ~23.5% of global primary production and their high photosynthetic capabilities depend on their abilities to synthesize chlorophyll. A key step in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll is catalyzed by the enzyme 'light-dependent protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase’ (POR). Early in the evolution of diatoms, the gene encoding this enzyme (por) was duplicated, resulting in two homologous but later divergent genes: por1 and por2. We aim to create a comprehensive heterokont por gene phylogeny to determine whether the gene duplication event occurred before diatoms diverged from sister taxa in the Heterokontophyta, early in diatom evolution, or in only one diatom lineage. Additionally, this phylogeny will allow us to determine the effects of natural selection in shaping the evolution of these genes. Preliminary studies suggest that positive selection acted in the past on both por1 and por2, though these protein sequences are now conserved within diatoms. To create this por gene phylogeny, we will sequence the por genes of various organisms representative of the major orders within the diatom class, Bacillariophyceae. Additionally, we have successfully sequenced numerous representatives of other Heterokont classes that will serve as the background to the Bacillariophyceaen gene phylogeny. These studies require the cultivation of various strains of algae, DNA extraction, PCR with por specific primers, and gene sequencing.

Opiates are considered an effective treatment of severe pain for a long time. However, repeated exposure to opiates induces analgesic tolerance, which has been correlated with an increase in opiate associated deaths due to respiratory depression. This project aims to compare and contrast tolerance to opiate-induced analgesia and tolerance to opiate-induced respiratory depression. We hypothesized that the rate of development of the former tolerance phenomenon occurred faster than that of the later tolerance phenomenon. In such a case, patients may be more likely to develop respiratory depression as the dose of opiate is escalated in an attempt to provide continued analgesia. To date, animal tests have been conducted to look at effects on nociception and ventilation produced by various doses of opiates in opiate naive and opiate experienced rats. The nociception testing was conducted through paw withdraw experiments, where the time for rats to move their paws under a hot light indicated analgesic effects, and the ventilation testing was conducted using whole body plethysmography, where ventilation signals of rats were conveniently and accurately measured and recorded. In the ventilation testing, rats’ responses to different ambient carbon dioxide concentrations up to 5% were measured. From the collected data, a potential therapeutic window for morphine was found to be between 5 mg/kg to 15 mg/kg, under which no obvious respiratory depression was observed while above which severe respiratory depression happened and almost no respiratory response to carbon dioxide was noticed. Future results may indicate the relative large discrepancy between the magnitudes of tolerance to opiate-induced analgesia and that of tolerance to opiate-induced respiratory depression. This may further indicate the different mechanisms mediating these two opiate-induced tolerance phenomena, a better understanding of which may allow treatments that make opiates safer for patients with chronic pain.

Aging is a degenerative process characterized by a progressive deterioration of cellular components and organelles resulting in mortality. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been used extensively to study the biology of aging, and several determinants of C. elegans longevity are conserved in higher order organisms. The specific mechanisms of longevity in C. elegans have not been completely identified and many pathways are still poorly understood. Dietary restriction is one promising pro-longevity intervention, though like other aspects of longevity, its mechanism is also poorly defined. DR, a reduction in caloric intake in the absence of malnutrition, extends lifespan and has been found to delay the onset of age-associated disease, not only in C. elegans, but in a wide range of species including yeast, flies, mice, and primates. We are performing a genome-wide screen of the Vidal RNA interference (RNAi) Library, which has a catalog of 11,511 clones. By knocking down specific genes within the C. elegans genome through RNAi, we are able to observe an extension or reduction in longevity in response to DR. We will follow up on our collected data by measuring the full lifespans of all mutants that respond strongly in the screen. By screening such a large number of genes, the widespread effect, and hopefully mechanism, of DR will be elucidated. We hope to see genes significantly affected by DR cluster into groups with common functionality, or along the same pathway, and then follow up on those specific pathways to clarify the mechanisms underlying DR. If these pathways are conserved, research findings relating to C. elegans may be applicable to other organisms. We hope to confirm these results and further investigate the interaction between DR and other potential longevity pathways.

I am committed in examining the National Basketball Association’s (NBA) salaries for players in comparison to their position played on the court. I believe there is an unequal distribution of wealth in the NBA when differentiating between a point guard, shooting guard, center, power forward and small forward. Theses five positions add up to complete a team, which represent the offense and defense. It can be seen that positions on the court are associated with physical attributes acquired by players, for instance, their size. It is widely known that the position of centers are typically the tallest players in the game, which can have an influence on one's salary. I believe there is a strong positive correlation between the two. A website by the name, Draft Express, contains the statistics for each NBA team including player’s height, salary, position and years played. I have analyzed the data from this website to demonstrate the potential for skewed earnings. I applied research methods like social mapping, data and media analysis, as well as participant observations. These techniques contribute in probing player’s positions along side their earned salaries. The time period for this research will focus on figures from previous years, specifically the players on the NBA’s team roasters between the years of 2010 – 2012. Conducting this research will allow me to sort out the quantitative ranks of salary with the qualitative outcome it plays on teammate relationships and sports culture.

My Mary Gates Leadership Scholarship has allowed me to examine ways in which Pacific Islander’s identify themselves by breaking stereotypes through sports and education. I want to know why society has stigmatized every Pacific Islander male to be associated with football, and how this ultimately affects how young Pacific Islanders identify themselves. This connects to current research [Billings 2007] by addressing the inequalities and discourse among minority athletes. I will be using the methods of participant observation, photovoice, and interviewing to analyze my question. I will mainly be working with the camp participants of a non-profit organization: The Taro Roots Foundation, which is an organization that targets Pacific Islander youth (ages 10-14) and emphasize the importance of higher education through cultural, academic, and health workshops as well as training in skills through football. Along with this group I will also be interviewing and observing some of the Pacific Islander football players at the University of Washington and compare and contrast outcomes. This research is important because it contributes information about the Pacific Islander community that is unspoken of and receives little no attention. The media has stigmatized the Pacific Islander community and created stereotypes that are very much prevalent in society today. My research and organizations such as Taro Roots are ways in which we are able to break these stereotypes and shed light on the true Pacific Islander culture. Our Pacific Islander youth are more than just athletes; they are scholars in the making.

I am examining the issue of overfocus on the body of athletes in sports and how the media perpetuates societal norms of hyper masculinity and hyper femininity in the culture of sports. This topic connects to a number of current research. I am utilizing research by Hardin and Whiteside from their article “Homophobia and Heterosexism in Women’s Sports Coverage”, which discusses how homophobia in sports has reinforced the images of hyper masculinity and hyper femininity that is constantly being circulated by the media as the norm. I am also utilizing research by Wenner, specifically issues raised in his article “Gendered Sports Dirt”, which discusses themes of masculinity, femininity and specifically the annihilation of women in media versus commercials that highlight women with the idea that “sex sells”. To analyze this issue, I use the methods of photovoice, interviews, and analysis of social media like twitter profiles of athletes and brands they endorse. This research is important because it challenges the societal norms and the gender stereotypes that the media constantly creates and perpetuates in the culture of sports. It is essential to question these norms that the media is propagating since whereas some of the male athletes are constantly being portrayed as these strong, buff and physically built individuals, some of the women athletes on the other hand, regardless of their achievements, are being portrayed as sex symbols. The impact this representation has on the society has detrimental effects as it continues to push gender inequality as the social norm. 

The mitochondrial unfolded protein response (mitoUPR) is a protective mechanism that is activated when the mitochondria experience stress. mitoUPR signaling has been linked to systemic inflammation and the innate immune response in multicellular organisms as well as being an important factor involved in the etiology and progression of many diseases, especially mitochondrial diseases such as Leigh Syndrome, and in aging. We are using HSP60 and HSP6 GFP reporter expressing Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), which express green fluorescent protein when the mitoUPR is activated. By specifically inhibiting and altering mitochondrial function with different drugs, we hope to identify the signaling components of the mitochondria that induce (or inhibit) the protective mechanism. In addition, we are constructing HSP6 and HSP60 expressing plasmids to be taken up by the bacteria that the C. elegans eat. By feeding HSP6 and HSP60 to the worms we can determine if the mitoUPR can be induced through exogenous heat shock protein uptake in the gut. We are also feeding the C. elegans different strains of bacteria to observe the effect of how different bacterial proteins can affect the strength of mitoUPR induction and whether the innate immune response can induce the mitoUPR. From this data we hope to gain a better understanding of the mitoUPR, and configure a model on how this mechanism is expressed.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has claimed more than 25 million lives worldwide, and a further 33.2 million are currently living with the disease. Current treatment for HIV involves highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which commonly involves the oral administration of a combination of small-molecule drugs that target HIV at different stages in the viral replication cycle. Oral administration requires larger doses of drug due to loss during metabolism, which can lead to greater costs and increased toxicity for patients. To avoid these issues, a lipid-encapsulated hydrogel nanoparticle was synthesized as a mucosal drug delivery vehicle for small-molecule antiretroviral drugs. The nanoparticles, comprising a crosslinked polyacrylamide core surrounded by a phosphatidylcholine bilayer, were synthesized via photopolymerization and characterized using dynamic light scattering for size, zeta potential, and morphology. They were then synthesized encapsulating zidovudine or tenofovir, which are reverse transcriptase inhibitors, or maraviroc, an entry inhibitor, and the encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release kinetics were measured using high-pressure liquid chromatography. In vitro cellular uptake of the nanoparticles was measured using bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs). The nanoparticles showed a tenfold increase in the encapsulation efficiency of all three drugs and a slower release profile as compared to liposomes encapsulating the same drugs, indicating that this system allows for HAART dose reduction. The nanoparticles were also taken up preferentially by BMDCs as compared to drug-loaded liposomes and soluble drug, further indicating greater targeted delivery of drugs to infected cells and suggesting a future use for the delivery vehicle as an HIV vaccine.

This research examines the way Indigenous cultures and identities are represented at Tillicum Village, a Seattle-area tourist attraction. Recent changes in ownership and management at the site have proved controversial among the Indigenous populations represented, who perceive the focus as shifting away from cultural authenticity and toward economic profit. This project explores the issues of a corporation's responsibility in accurately and fairly representing the cultures it profits from. The concepts of staged authenticity and heterotopia are essential to the theoretical framework of this issue, as is placing Tillicum Village in the context of colonial tourism. Data are being collected using traditional ethnographic methods and historical research, and analyzed through critical theory. This research ultimately hopes to illuminate way in which Tillicum Village can better address the grievances of, and collaborate with, the Indigenous communities it portrays.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been proposed to contribute to organismal aging. In the nematode C. elegans, reduction of mitochondrial function through knockdown of genes encoding components of the electron transport chain (ETC) is sufficient to increase life span. The increased longevity is not solely the by-product of decreased oxidative damage generated by the ETC, but also involves induction of the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPR^mt), as evidenced by the observation that life span extension requires an intact UPR^mt. The cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria have each evolved compartment-specific signal transduction pathways to alter nuclear gene expression in response to perturbations in protein homeostasis. However, little is known about the UPR^mt and the mechanism by which unfolded proteins are recognized in the mitochondria and signal changes in gene expression. Previous studies demonstrate that knockdown of ETC components and a subset of mitochondrial proteins induce the GFP reporters for mitochondrial chaperones hsp-6 and hsp-60. To identify novel genes involved in the UPR^mt, we are performing a forward genome-wide RNAi screen using the hsp-6::GFP reporter and measuring UPR^mt activity by fluorescent microscopy. Upon completion of the screen, we expect positive hits to include mitochondrial proteins, signaling molecules, and transcription factors that regulate the UPR^mt. Consistent with previous studies, gene knockdowns that have robustly induced the UPR^mt thus far in our screen are largely components of the ETC. In addition, the screen has yielded many novel hits including genes outside of the mitochondria and of unknown function. After the screen is complete, we will validate the RNAi clones that induce the UPR^mt and perform lifespan experiments to understand how the UPR^mt is involved in the aging process. Our screen will further understanding of how the mitochondria and nucleus communicate with one another in order to maintain mitochondrial proteostasis and illuminate how mitochondrial stress contributes to aging.

Following the Norman invasion of England in 1066, King William I instituted a new system of royal forests throughout England. Intended as royal hunting preserves, these areas were vast in extent, and a distinct system of law restricting land usage and hunting rights applied within their bounds. While information on baronial reactions to this change is readily available, the attitudes of commoners and the lesser gentry are more obscure. I argue that the primary audience of the ballads of the famed English outlaw Robin Hood was non-noble, and examines their earliest editions – and the activities of historical outlaws in the 15th century – in the context of both forest law and the appearance of a non-noble “middle class” concurrent with the tales’ apparent origins. Beginning with the origins of forest law and its departures from Anglo-Saxon precedent, I focus on the symbolic significance of the deer-hunt as a royal or noble privilege and the way deer-poachers, fictional and historical, both mocked and mimicked noble hunting rituals – a tendency inexplicable by the mere need for food. Most Robin Hood scholars seek either to identify the tales’ primary audience, or to identify a “historical” Robin Hood; those few that address forest law do not seek to tie these tales’ popularity to the resentment of noble privilege rife at the time of their inception. Robin Hood’s portrayal as a paragon of justice, coupled with his direct defiance of forest law, reveals a complex view of the matter: the stories’ hero defies laws that are specifically royal while upholding the status quo values of his time, up to and including the concept of kingship itself. Resentment is focused against the attempted royal monopoly of a symbolically-charged resource, rather than against the hierarchical structure of society as a whole.

A proto-planetary disk is a disk of gas and dust that surrounds a star that is still in the early stages of evolution. This disk contains the gas that accretes onto the proto-star and also contains the dust and gas from which planets form. Unfortunately the star is a much brighter than the disk and so direct imaging of the disk is difficult and time consuming, but can be accomplished using a coronagraph. To help interpret coronagraphic imagery of the protoplanetary disk system AB Aur, we created 3D models of the system using the Monte Carlo code of Whitney et al. 2002. We compared the observed the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the system, compiled from observed data reported by Robitaille et al. 2006, with predictions from our Monte Carlo model. An SED is a plot of the brightness versus wavelength of a star. We tested other variables like the composition of the disk, and the percentage of the disk that is composed of small grains and large grains, etc. We discuss how changing each of these variables influenced the resultant SED and model image of the AB Aur system; and hence influences our ability to study the process of planet formation around young stars.

This project researches the garbage collection in the city of Tacoma. By looking at current routes, then determining the most efficient routes using GIS for collection in order to eliminate backtracking as much as possible. Is there a better system of routes than those that are currently being used by the city of Tacoma? What is the carbon footprint of the Municipal Solid Waste in Tacoma before and after the new routes? We have determined how many individual routes will be needed in order to service all the customers in the service area based on best routes, time needed to drive, and average number of customers per load. This information was used to determine a network of routes for each day of the week in order to determine how many routes were needed per day to evenly distribute the weekly pick-ups. The new routes were calculated using information and number of trucks the city plans on using. The network for the project was setup with parameters such as street pick-up only, where possible, road layers that connect, and starting and ending points. This is important because new tools such as GIS allow for a more sustainable system which will reduce the carbon footprint of not only Tacoma but many more municipalities and private companies.

AB Aur is a protostar with a surrounding protoplanetary disk. By taking coronagraphic images of AB Aur using an occulting mask to block out the star in order to get a more detailed look at the young circumstellar disk we are able to analyze the potential formation of any extrasolar planets. Because it is unclear where the exact center of the star is behind the occulting mask, we simulated the effects of mis-centered stars by shifting 24 individual images of the disk 4 times at different pixel shifts. Using 14 areas of interest we were able to compare the intensity changes for each final shifted image. Any significant variations in the intensity graph indicated the region was not an actual structure. We concluded there was a spiral arm forming on the right side of the disk and the gap above the star was real and not strongly affected by any mis-centering of the central star behind the corongraphic mask.

Despite widespread global immunization with the current tuberculosis (TB) vaccine, BCG, TB remains a serious problem, killing almost 2 million people every year. In addition, because BCG is a live vaccine it is unsafe to give to immunocompromised individuals, especially those with AIDS. Therefore, a new and effective vaccine that is safer is urgently needed. We are testing nanoparticles blended with polymers, designed to stimulate CD4 and CD8 T cells, as a delivery system for a TB vaccine. Nanoparticles coated with M. tuberculosis epitopes recognized by both CD4 and CD8 T cells were used to immunize mice subcutaneously. T cell responses were detected in immunized mice using both MHC class I and II tetramers, and also by intracellular cytokine staining. Immunized mice, or unimmunized controls, were then challenged with M. tuberculosis via the aerosol route. Mice immunized with the nanoparticles displayed T-cell responses to the relevant CD4 antigens, but this response did not lead to a lower bacterial burden in the lung when the mice were challenged with M. tuberculosis. Future studies are needed to further optimize protection provided bthe nanoparticle vaccine platform.