The purpose of this study was to examine how students from different backgrounds and ethnic groups experience UW-River Falls. Previous studies, including the Campus Climate Survey (surveying all faculty, staff, and students in 2009), have shown that white students may experience fewer incidents of discrimination or bias as compared to students of color. While the Campus Climate survey gave us a broad understanding of differential experiences on campus, we felt it was important to dig deeper into students’ beliefs and experiences. In addition to asking about experiences of discrimination on campus more generally and with professors, we also asked about a variety of other issues: GPA and time spent studying, perceptions of their own intelligence, levels of self esteem and ethnic identification, and background experiences (among many other questions). Our survey was based on a much larger survey of UCLA students (Sidanius, Levin, van Laar, & Sears, 2008) that was modified to fit UW-River Falls. The survey was administered to over 293 students from across campus in classes, student organization meetings, and special sessions set up to collect data (General Psychology Participant Pool). Our results indicated that students of color had lower GPA’s and felt less smart than white students but they also reported studying more on average. Students of color reported lower Self Esteem but higher ethnic identification than whites and they perceived UW-River Falls as less diverse than whites. Students of color reported more experiences of discrimination on campus as well as more biased professors. Finally, among students of color it seems that ethnic identification may have a somewhat protective effect. Higher levels of ethnic identification were correlated with higher self esteem, but also with greater perceptions of campus and professor bias.

The purpose of this study was to investigate one explanation for why religious people have been found to be happier than non-religious people. Given that gratitude has been shown to be an important aspect of psychological well-being, we theorize that an individual’s gratefulness towards God should mediate their happiness due to an increased availability of gratitude expression as well as creating a larger pool of events to be grateful for. We expected this mediation to manifest in the form of a participant memory bias as well as significant contributions to well-being after accounting for their gratitude disposition. In order to test this hypothesis, we analyzed the reported religiosity, well-being, and recalled significant events taking place in the past month of 133 college students. The results from this study seem to indicate that gratefulness towards God may not explain the happiness of religious people beyond their general gratitude.

Pain is a complicated sensory experience involving several neural circuits and structures. Previous research has examined the neural activity associated with processing and perceiving pain. One study examined the relationship between the average self-reported pain ratings and the average electrophysiological brain activity of Spinal Cord Injury Participants with chronic pain, as measured by electroencephalography (EEG). Significant relationships between pain perception and alpha wave activity around the sensory integration areas of the brain (electrode sites T3 and T4) were found. This study aims to further explore the relationship between expression and perception of pain and corresponding EEG measurements. Waveform analysis of the raw EEG data recorded just before and after the reporting of each pain rating will allow us to examine pain-related neural activity in more detail surrounding the time the participant consciously perceived and rated their pain.  Independent Component Analysis (ICA) allows us to isolate and examine the specific contribution of each frequency at each electrode.  Main effects of each wavelength and how they may interact will also be explored. Analysis software will help us graphically visualize and model the data, creating a preliminary visual representation of the neural activity measured. Further use of neuroimaging analysis software will help to better understand neural pain pathways. With further analysis, it may be possible to utilize computer programs to create a model that can imitate and test these indicated circuits. This analysis will provide us with a more dynamic understanding of the “chronic pain brain” and  will provide a baseline against which to compare brain activity after treatments.

Smokeless tobacco use, 90% of which occurs among males, typically begins in adolescence and significantly ceases by the end of young adulthood. This study tested the hypothesis that psychological factors consistent with the Theory of Triadic Influence (TTI) longitudinally predict male SLT acquisition and cessation. This is the first known study to test these predictions. TTI psychological risk factors (parental noncompliance, friend compliance, rebelliousness, and thrill-seeking) were assessed in a cohort of Washington State males participating in a 40 school district tobacco study. To predict acquisition of daily use, never SLT users had their risk factors assessed at age 12. Their SLT use was assessed at age 18 (N = 2,468; 94.8% 5-year retention). To predict cessation, all daily SLT users had their risk factors assessed at age 18. Their SLT cessation status was assessed at ages 20 and 28 (N = 182; 86.9% 10-year retention). All models were tested with logistic regressions adjusting for experimental condition, team sport participation, parental education, and clustering among participants in the same school district. Scoring high on the following psychological factors at age 12 increased the odds of daily SLT use at age 18: 156% increased odds for friend compliance (OR = 2.56; p <.001), 116% for rebelliousness (OR = 2.16; p <.001), and 133% for thrill seeking (OR = 2.33; p <.001). Parent noncompliance was not a significant predictor (p =.33) of SLT acquisition. None of the psychological factors at age 18 predicted SLT cessation at ages 20 or 28 (p value range: .13 to .94). This study provides the first evidence that friend compliance, rebelliousness, and thrill-seeking strongly predict SLT acquisition among males. However, there was no evidence that the psychological factors predicted SLT cessation. Targeting these psychological predictors early may help prevent SLT use among males.

Decision making and risk factors such as media, peers/friends, and family, represent the two main areas that researchers have examined in an effort to understand the cause of disordered eating. Research on decision making has identified a strong tendency toward self-gratifying or disadvantageous decision making among disordered eating populations. Furthermore, persons with disordered eating demonstrate sensitivity towards risk factors as a source for self-perception which in turn plays a large role in binge eating symptomology. However, research on the interaction of these two components with regards to disordered eating is yet unexplored. This gap in understanding was the source of inquiry for my study. Binge Eating Disorder (BED) is the most prevalent of the eating disorders. Being that I did not have access to a sizable BED group, I focused on subthreshold BED (SBED). I hypothesized that (a) SBED participants will demonstrate disadvantageous decision making; (b) SBED participants will place high value on media, peers, and family as a source self-perception; (c) SBED participants’ high sensitivity to media, peers and family promotes self-gratifying DM; (d) Gender differences will be significant with regards to external risk factors, but no difference in decision making. Participants were recruited from introductory psychology classes. An online survey was administered to measure eating attitudes, decision making pattern, and influence of media, peers, and family on binge eating symptomology. I anticipate finding that SBED participants demonstrate decision making impairments and sensitivities to risk factors. Additionally, I anticipate differences in the way risk factors are perceived between genders. Understanding the interaction between decision making and risk factors could lead to possible therapies for and preventive measures against disordered eating. A more in-depth study of clinical and subthreshold disordered eating is needed to ascertain a clearer understanding of the interplay between these two key components of disordered eating.

Though many fields that were previously male dominated have moved drastically towards gender equality, the field of computer science continues to reflect a large gender disparity; less than 20% of undergraduate degrees in computer science were given to women in 2009. Role congruity theory posits that women are more inclined to participate in activities that are congruent with their gender role. Current stereotypes of computer science reflect a societal perception that computer scientists work alone, and this stereotype is incongruent with the female gender role, specifically with communal goals. Previous research has found that communal goals, such as helping others and working with people, predict female interest in occupational fields. This research examined how perceptions of communal and agentic goals in a field are related to interest in a taking six different science classes. I hypothesized that women will be more interested in majors that endorse communal goals. Measures of personal importance of communal goals were taken as a potential mediator between interest in high communal and low communal majors. Surveys were handed out to students on campus at the University of Washington. The sample population included students attending the University of Washington who were 18 years of age or older. This study is a preliminary study to a series of experiments that will manipulate perceptions of communal goals in computer science classes. As many computer science departments hold a strict no-collaboration policy in their introductory courses, implications of this study may include how these policies potentially influence female college students to join or continue in the computer science major. Further, fostering perceptions of collaborative activities could potentially increase female participation in computer science through appealing to their interest in communal goals.

Asian Americans respond negatively to being the target of a positive stereotype (e.g., Asians are smart) even though these stereotypes are often attempts at praising their group (Siy & Cheryan, under review). The current work focuses on how responses to positive stereotypes vary depending on the race of the person stating the positive stereotype. We hypothesize that Asian Americans will respond more positively to other Asians who state positive stereotypes about their race than Whites who state positive stereotypes about Asians, because Asians are assumed to have "cultural credentials" about their own race. In this case, cultural credentials are defined as the perception that a person has sufficient knowledge about a group to enable them to make comments about that group that outsiders cannot. In this study, Asian American participants imagined a situation in which they were positively stereotyped by either a White classmate or an Asian classmate. Results showed that participants responded more positively to the positive stereotype when the stereotyper was Asian, compared to when the stereotyper was White. Positive responses to Asians who state positive stereotypes about their own race were explained by the belief that Asian stereotypers had stronger cultural credentials. This study shows that taking the time to establish cultural credentials may be a useful strategy for times when one desires to praise a group for their accomplishments.

Relationships can be beneficial in many aspects of one’s life. For example, intimate relationships may provide individuals with the ability to cope in stressful circumstances. On the other hand, it may cause an individual to experience more stress during different situations. Bergman and Surrey (2009) found couples may experience as many as 3 or 4 stressful situations in a given day. According to previous research, couples faced with certain stressful situations will often look to their significant other for support (Neff, 2009). I will be looking at intimate romantic couples for this study. I will examine if couples help or hinder their partners during a stressful situation. By using math problems as a stressor, I will examine how couples cope with stress with their partner and if their significant other increases or decreases their stress during and after the process of solving a math problem. Having each one take the survey, I will be assessing the stress levels of both partners. In this study, I will use the Math Self-Concept Scale (MSCS), the Statistics Test Anxiety-Emotionality (STAE), Cooperative Problem-Solving Measure (CPSM), Subjective Units of Distress Level (SUDS), and math equations for the survey they will be taking. These measures will examine each individual’s level of stress before, during, and after the survey questions are completed.  I anticipate, during the process of solving math equations, the involvement of an individual’s partner will either increase or decrease their stress levels associated with the activity. I hypothesize that the individuals who are assisting their partners who are taking the survey will find themselves more stressed during the problem solving process and less stressed after the activity ends. This study could provide professionals and counselors with some valuable information that could perhaps teach couples more successful methods of support and communication.

Women have been steadily increasing their representation in many careers that have been traditionally male-dominated; however, women continue to be underrepresented in computer science. If women learn that their gender is underrepresented, that could lower their interest or deter them from joining because they believe they do not belong in this field. On the other hand, it could increase their interest if they feel they are wanted. This study examined whether learning about the underrepresentation of women in computer science would increase women's interest in this field. We predicted that women's interest would increase especially if they see it as an opportunity to stand out and be unique. Female students in the psychology subject pool (PSP) at the University of Washington voluntarily signed up to participate in the study. There were two conditions: in the control condition, participants were given an article that stated computer science had high demand and that less than 30% of job openings are filled by college graduates; in the underrepresentation condition, participants were given an article that stated computer science had high demand for women and that less than 30% of college degrees are earned by women. After participants read the article they answered questions about their interest in computer science. Results were statistically significant: women who were told that women are underrepresented in computer science showed more interest and belonging in the field than those who were not told. These results imply that an intervention to raise awareness of underrepresentation of women in computer science could help more females become interested and likely to join this field.

Measuring client adjustment throughout psychotherapy has been supported as a method to improve client outcome upon cessation of treatment. Weekly assessments inform the clinician how the client is responding to therapy and illuminate when adjustments to treatment may be necessary.  The Evidence-Based Assessment System for Clinicians (EAS-C) is a computerized outcome tracking system that allows psychotherapists to measure weekly progress and instantly view results with their clients in session. While there are excellent measures for tracking general psychological adjustment, many are too lengthy and arduous to facilitate completion on a weekly basis. Therefore, we created the seven-item Brief Adjustment Scale for EAS-C. We hypothesized a high correlation between the BASE-7 and the Outcome-Questionnaire 45.2, an established measure of psychological functioning. Furthermore, we hypothesized participants would report more willingness to complete the BASE-7 and would rate it as easier to complete than the OQ-45.2. Adult participants were recruited through the online survey website, Mechanical Turk, and completed the BASE-7, OQ-45.2, and an acceptability and utility questionnaire online. The BASE-7 correlated highly with the OQ-45.2, indicating high concurrent validity. Participants rated the BASE-7 significantly more acceptable than the OQ-45.2, suggesting participants would be more willing to complete the BASE-7 on a weekly basis. Participants’ ratings of the utility of the BASE-7 and the OQ-45.2 were not significantly different, indicating participants believed both measures would adequately communicate levels of psychological distress to a mental health provider. These findings demonstrate that the BASE-7 is a valid tool for measuring psychological distress that may be more suitable for weekly administration than lengthier measures. As a brief outcome measure, the BASE-7 is a promising new tool that may be used to inform both clinician and client of treatment progress over time.

Cognitive theorists argue that mental states, including disorders, are generated and maintained by personal, subjective beliefs, and that events can only be appropriately labeled by the individual experiencing them. Additionally, pervasive negative thoughts are a part of both depression and anxiety. Whereas with depression a person is likely to believe they are incompetent, or that life is hopeless, with anxiety a person is likely to have negative thoughts about what might happen or about threats in the future. Additionally, high levels of self-hate are associated with bulimia and high levels of self-control are associated with anorexia. Current research indicates a connection between depression, anxiety, and self-talk (ST). However, studies have yet to examine whether ST in men suffering from depression, anxiety, or disordered eating (DE) differs from that of women. The purpose of this study is to explore potential gender differences in ST (as measured by the automatic thoughts questionnaire-revised and the anxious self-statements questionnaire) with student’s scores on the Beck Depression Inventory, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Eating Disorders Inventory. These differences, if found, may help to explain the disparity between the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and DE between genders. Women are twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with depression or anxiety and ten times as likely to be diagnosed with an eating disorder. We hypothesize that there will be differences in ST between men and women, and that these differences in ST will mediate the relation between gender and depression, anxiety, and disordered eating.

Ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopaminergic cell firing encodes reward information and has been implicated in reinforcement learning, spatial memory and decision-making. However the mechanisms which modulate VTA dopaminergic burst firing are not well known. A division of the mesonpontine tegmentum, the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDTg) provides inputs into the VTA. Inactivation of the LDTg greatly reduces VTA dopaminergic burst firing, implicating the LDTg’s role in permitting VTA activity. In the current study we sought to determine the nature of the information coded by LDTg neurons in order to better understand the type of information that regulates dopamine cell activity. We assessed this by neurophysiological single unit recordings of LDTg cell activity in freely behaving rats. Rats were trained on an 8-arm radial maze, which required spatial and working memory in order to, without errors, forage for large and small rewards located at the end of arms. Experimental manipulations consisted of omitting expected rewards, switching the location of rewards of different magnitudes and imposing darkness during the maze trials. We recorded a total of 83 different cells, which were histologically confirmed to be located in the LDTg. We found a large number of reward-related cells (9.6% became excited when rats encountered reward, 8.4% showed excitation in anticipation of reward, 4.8% showed excitatory, then inhibitory and then excitatory responses around the time of reward) and movement related cells (76% were correlated with the rat’s velocity). The large proportion of velocity-correlated cells supports the LDTg’s role in motor behavior. Context and reward manipulations did not consistently affect the firing rate of LDTg cellular activity. However, the current study demonstrates that with 25% of LDTg cells exhibiting reward-related responses, the LDTg has a role in reward encoding by a permissive affect on VTA dopaminergic burst firing.

Women who are targets of a positive stereotype (i.e., women are nurturing) assume that the stereotyper also holds negative stereotypes about them (e.g., women are bad at math). The present research investigates whether being the target of a positive stereotype leads women to underperform on a math test because they fear confirming assumed negative perceptions of their group. In this study, female participants were randomly assigned to either the positive stereotype condition (i.e., “why women are generally more nurturing than men”) or the no positive stereotype condition (i.e., “why some men and women are generally more nurturing than others”). Participants then proceeded to take a math test. Results showed that women in the positive stereotype condition underperformed on the math test compared to women in the no positive stereotype condition. This study suggests that praise in the form of a positive stereotype may be counterproductive, resulting in negative consequences for people who are targets of a positive stereotype. Moreover, targets of a positive stereotype may perceive negative stereotypes as being implicitly imposed onto them. Therefore, positive stereotypes may lead women to not only underperform on a math test but also accept associated negative perceptions of their group.

Emotion is a human universal but interpretation of facial expressions and the prescribed meaning may differ across cultures. In Faces and Feelings we attempt to examine this cultural variation by testing East Asian and European American participants’ responses to various stories presented with photos of facial expressions. Recent research has indicated that European Americans judge faces primarily using features of the face, whereas East Asian participants judge faces inferring from the person’s social situation. Expanding on this, we predict different factors such as interdependence and dialectical thinking will influence interpretation of facial expressions cross-culturally. Participants are asked to complete a computer-based experiment consisting of essay responses, multiple choice questions and demographic information. We will then perform qualitative analyses on the data collected. We expect our results from this ongoing study to yield similar results to the earlier pilot studies which supported the hypotheses. While people in every culture express their feeling on their faces, there may be differences in what those expressions communicate and in how they reflect what a person is feeling. Knowledge of these differences may help diverse cultures understand and relate to each other in positive and more productive ways.

Learning and memory require that neural activity be flexibly organized. Neurons must sometimes fire together in ensembles so that important signals are not lost in the complex activity of the brain, but these ensembles must also be capable of forming, breaking apart, or reforming at a moment’s notice. Such transient synchrony of neural activity may be achieved by means of oscillatory firing. Oscillatory firing at various frequencies is commonly found in electrophysiological recordings from the brain and may underlie the dynamic organization of neural activity. We investigated oscillatory activity in a brain region critical to learning and memory, the hippocampus. The power of oscillatory activity in the hippocampus at several frequency bands including gamma (30-80 hz) has been linked to successful encoding and recall in hippocampus-dependent memory tasks. Prior work has also shown that inputs from the ventral tegmental area are necessary for normal hippocampal function and for spatial learning and memory. These inputs occur in two forms: tonic baseline firing and intermittent phasic bursts. We tested genetic knockout mice that lack phasic but not tonic inputs from the ventral tegmental area while animals foraged for food on a spatial navigation task. We simultaneously recorded local field potentials in the hippocampus, which represent the net inputs to a region of the brain and allow us to assess the power of oscillatory activity. In the preliminary data, knockout mice demonstrated more rapid learning in response to successive manipulations of the reward location compared to controls. Knockouts also showed higher gamma-frequency but not theta-frequency (4-10 hz) power. These results suggest that phasic inputs from the ventral tegmental area selectively inhibit gamma-frequency oscillations in the hippocampus. This role may be behaviorally relevant, reflecting the possibility that these oscillations play a role in organizing learning and memory.

Tickle-Degnen and Rosenthal identified coordination as signaling a strong interpersonal connection between two people (also known as dyadic rapport). This coordination, termed behavioral synchrony in past research, can be conceptually defined as the unintentional mirroring of another’s behavior. Investigations on the relationship between rapport and synchrony in educational (Bernieri; LaFrance) and clinical (Ramseyer & Tschacher) settings provide evidence validating this rapport-synchrony interaction. Situational conditions may impact dyadic rapport, including perceptions of authority (Dunbar; Grahe & Sherman). Focus on the dyad’s gender-makeup is also salient to power theory as gender roles can be associated with dominance (Dunbar). The present study examined these phenomena using a research design drawn from a project proposal by Dr. Fabian Ramseyer for the Collective Undergraduate Research Project. Alongside his proposal, Dr. Ramseyer generously provided access to the Motion Energy Analysis (Rokesby & Ramseyer), an innovative tool designed to evaluate synchronous behavior. This computerized program translated video footage of a dyadic interaction into quantitative measures of synchrony, thereby eliminating the need for researchers to subjectively code the videos. In the experiment, participants (Ndyad = 34) first responded to a short pre-test measuring empathy and interpersonal behavior intentions. Dyads then completed a dyadic task developing a six-course menu for a party in a 2 (Gender Specificity: Superbowl vs. Baby Shower) X 2 (Partition of Responsibility: Equal or Individual) X 3 (Dyad Makeup: Male-Male, Mixed, Female-Female) between-S design. After the interaction, they completed post-test measures of mood and relationship quality. Results from this research can be extended to both clinical and non-clinical settings, acting as guidelines for the construction of dyadic partnerships in a way that encourages effective rapport-building.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the use of electromagnetic induction to generate an electrical current beneath a conductive coil, has proven to be a non-invasive technique that can be applied to cortical areas in the brain to produce evoked action potentials. The behavioral effects of TMS are subject to the frequency, duration, and intensity of the magnetic stimulus being applied, and either long-term potentiation or long-term depression of neurons can be produced. Low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) employs the use of repeated stimulation at 1 Hz, and has been shown to cause a short-term depression of cells. A newly developed protocol, continuous theta-burst stimulation (cTBS), applies three pulses (50Hz) in bursts of triplets, and has been reported to produce stronger long-term depressive effects than low-frequency rTMS. While the effects of both low-frequency rTMS and cTBS have been extensively studied in regards to their effect on motor cortex function, few analyses have been conducted on their effect on language. In the current experiment, we compare the effects of cTBS and low-frequency rTMS on two tests of language comprehension abilities including a sentence comprehension task and a naming task. If language processing can be modified using TMS, one would predict that the response times for the tests of language comprehension would increase, with greater response time increases following cTBS than following low-frequency rTMS. Initial results from this experiment show that pre-post TMS response times for a sentence-comprehension task after low-frequency rTMS is applied to their left hemisphere is decreased, but is increased after cTBS is administered. Opposite results are produced when applied to the right hemisphere, with rTMS increasing response time, and cTBS decreasing it, respectively. Although data collection is still under way, our goal is to determine whether rTMS and cTBS produce significantly different effects on sentence reading and word naming paradigms.

Statistical learning is the process of identifying a language’s structure by tracking patterns of regularities within the language. Recent studies indicate that infants can use the statistical regularities of syllable patterns to find words in fluent speech, which enables them to associate meanings to words. We do not know, however, if statistical learning can also help adults learn words. In the present study, 40 adults ages 18-30 will participate in a segmentation phase in which they listen to 5 minutes of an artificial speech stream consisting of nonsense words. The artificial language will ensure that adults are being exposed to a language that is unfamiliar to them. To teach the labels, adults will be presented with novel objects matching each label. They will hear four words they heard previously in the segmentation phase and four new words. The method of teaching and testing labels will be the same as used with infants. However, the task for adults will be more complex because they will be presented with more labels. To test participants’ knowledge of the two types of labels, we will examine their ability to look at the correct object when they hear the specific label. Our expectations are that, similar to infants, the segmentation phase will help adults link the labels to the correct objects. Without the previous segmentation experience learning the labels is expected to be more difficult. This study will reveal how the learning processes of adults relate to the learning processes of infants.

Animals must strive for a balance between foraging for food and avoiding danger in their daily environments. The amygdala has been shown to be a key brain structure involved in mediating both innate and learned fear responses in order to optimize the organism’s survival. Previous research using Pavlovian fear conditioning has shown that animals without an amygdala have deficits associating a conditioned stimulus (CS) with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). A Closed Economy is a semi-naturalistic paradigm in which all nutritional needs are met by completing a cost of procurement. Male Long-Evans rats were housed in the Closed Economy chambers for 24 hours under aversive stimulation in the form of foot-shocks (US) preceded by a light CS in the foraging area. I investigated whether the amygdala’s role in the modulation of foraging strategies is affected by the predictability of fear. Electrolytic lesions to the basal lateral amygdala (BLA) and central amygdala (CeA) were given to the experimental group, while controls were given sham surgeries. The animals were shaped to a chained fixed ratio 50-continuous reinforcement schedule, by which they were able to control their meal frequency and average meal size. After stable meal patterns were obtained, the rats went through seven day periods of baseline, shock, and extinction. Animals with lesions to the BLA and CeA initially exhibited deficits in the light-shock pairing, but over time, learned to avoid the shock in the foraging area. These results question whether the amygdala is necessary in associative fear learning and suggests possible compensatory mechanisms that could mediate long term fear learning in an environment with a chronic exposure to an aversive stimulus.

‘Gaydar’ is the phenomenon by which people are able to determine a person’s sexual orientation based on mere observation. Recent research has shown that people can judge sexual orientation with above-chance accuracy from facial photographs. The present research investigated if smiling is a cue that impacts judgments of men’s sexual orientation. Smiling is associated with femininity, and as gay men are generally stereotyped as feminine, we hypothesized that a man smiling would be rated as appearing more gay (vs. straight) than a man who was not smiling. We also predicted that because smiling, a femininity cue, may be less expected on more masculine faces, the impact of smiling will be greater in straight (vs. gay) men’s faces. Participants judged the sexual orientation of a total of 64 gay and straight men’s faces with smiles or neutral facial expressions (using a scale of 1=very gay to 7=very straight). As expected, men were judged as looking more gay when smiling (vs. neutral), and this effect was greater among straight (vs. gay) men’s faces. The findings of this research suggest that subtle gender cues can be conveyed by emotional facial expressions and influence perceptions of sexual orientation.

Adolescent use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs is on the rise in the United States. According to the Centers for Disease Control's (CDC) annual National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (NYRBS), nearly fifty percent of all teens have smoked cigarettes at some point and nearly seventy-five percent have tried alcohol. Research has established several factors known to put adolescents at risk for negative behaviors, including family problems, socioeconomic status, and lack of parental supervision. However, fewer studies have examined what factors prevent at-risk adolescent populations from using alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs. Many potential factors have been identified as buffers for at-risk adolescent populations; some these are creativity, service learning, and community involvement. But research investigating these factors is still limited in scope. The present study examines relationships between protective factors and risky health behaviors of at-risk adolescents. First, we pilot-tested our measures on emerging adult college students and found that students who reported higher levels of family cohesion reported lower levels of cigarette use, illicit substance use, and drunk driving. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the higher the level of reported creativity, the more students reported illegal drug use. Based on our preliminary findings, we are revising our survey and plan to survey adolescents at a Boise, Idaho community center about their use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs using the NYRBS. In addition, factors thought to serve as buffers against these risky health behaviors, including the five characteristics of Positive Youth Development, competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring using the Positive Youth Development Inventory (PYDI). We hypothesize that adolescents who possess these five characteristics will be less likely to engage in risky behaviors. We will test this hypothesis using Pearson's r correlations. Using our research findings, we hope to suggest future prevention program offerings to the community center.

Fear conditioning is a form of classical conditioning where an initially neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an inherently aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). After multiple CS-US pairings, CS alone produces conditioned fear responses. The amygdala has long been considered the key brain structure where fear learning-related plasticity primarily occurs. However, it has not been well studied how the US directs CS-US association in the amygdala. We recently found that stimulation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) could serve as a US in tone fear conditioning, indicating the dPAG may be a key structure in relaying US information to the amygdala during fear conditioning. In this study, we investigated the role of the amygdala in auditory fear conditioning where dPAG stimulation acted as the US. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were bilaterally implanted with stimulating electrodes in their dPAG and with guide cannulae in their amygdala. Prior to training, muscimol (0.3 µg/0.3 µL per side) was infused into the amygdala using infusion cannula and a microsyringe pump. For training, a tone (2.9 kHz, 85 dB, 20 sec) was used as a CS, and electrical stimulation (0.1-ms width, 100 Hz, 2 sec) of the dPAG as a US which co-terminated with the CS. Next day, an 8-min tone was presented continuously in a novel chamber as a tone testing, and the following day, 8-min exposure to the training chamber was given to the rats as a context testing. While the muscimol-injected animals displayed comparable level of freezing to the control animals during training, their freezing to the tone and context was disrupted during the testing, indicating fear conditioning was blocked by the amygdalar inactivation. These results suggest that the amygdala is critical for dPAG stimulation fear conditioning and may be the center of dPAG-directed US and tone CS convergence and plasticity.

Decision-making is a complex behavior where one must weigh cost and benefit to maximize the likelihood of the best possible outcome. A common example of this is a decision between a small yet certain reward (e.g. $1 or 1 piece of candy), and a larger uncertain reward (e.g. $10 or 10 pieces of candy 50% of the time). It has been suggested that context and dopamine levels play a critical role in the willingness of decision makers to take risks. We tested this hypothesis by assessing behavioral and neural differences between groups of rats trained on an equivalent risk-based paradigm conducted in different contexts. Rats started training in an operant chamber or a decision maze, and then switched contexts (i.e. tasks). These tasks involved the rat making a decision between two levers or doors, one of which was associated with a certain small reward (1 sugar pellet), and the other which is associated with a large (4 sugar pellets) reward that appeared with decreasing probability (100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%). To test the influence that dopamine has on risk taking behavior, we used a dopamine antagonist (flupenthixol) to inhibit dopamine in both the maze and operant chamber contexts. Our results suggest that when analyzed as a group, rats are less willing to take risks in the maze context. We hypothesize this is because risk taking on the maze is a more complex behavior, perhaps because of a longer delay between a choice and reward delivery. Our pharmacological findings of high numbers of trials in which levers were not pressed in the chamber, or trials not run on the maze, suggest that blocking dopamine interferes with the ability of rats to make risky decisions. Together, these results support the idea that risk-based decision-making is influenced by many factors, including context and dopamine.

Contact influences the behavior and associations of delphinids and other cetaceans. However, little is known about the role of contact in beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) social interactions. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the degree of contact in eight belugas at Sea World San Antonio using a focal sampling procedure of 10 minute observations. Frequency and/or duration were recorded for the initiating /receiving beluga, type of contact, body part used to contact, and object receiving contact. Data were collected during two seasons: Summer 2011, which examined contact behaviors between belugas and Fall 2011, which examined contact behaviors between belugas and object contact. During the summer, 27 contact events occurred across 120 observation sessions. Contact occurred at a rate of .02 events per minute, indicating belugas rarely contact each other. Most of the contact events that did occur were initiated by the three non-adult belugas, during affiliative play interactions and were short in duration. A third of the events occurred between a mother-calf pair while the calf was in infant position and lasted longer than most social interactions. During the fall, 17 physical contact events and 909 object contact events occurred across 120 observation sessions. Physical contact occurred at a rate of .01 events per minute. Like the summer session, most of the physical contact events were initiated by the three non-adult belugas, during affiliative play interactions and were short in duration. Again most of the events occurred between the mother-calf pair while the calf was swimming in infant position and were longer than most social interactions. Object contact occurred at a rate of .76 events per minute. Objects were contacted through rubbing 94% of the time, and objects were contacted through touching 6% of the time. Overall, belugas contacted objects more than each other.

Since the phrase Continuous Partial Attention, or CPA, was first coined by former Apple and Microsoft executive Linda Stone in 1998, it has gained considerable press both printed and online. Describing a cognitive tactic employed daily by many who have grown dependent on their digital gadgetry and networking technology, it has been asserted that there are specific consequences associated with prolonged use. These include a heightened level of stress as well as an inability to focus, self-inflect, and an overall feeling of being unfulfilled.
Although discussed and widely accepted as a valid and prevalent condition by many writers in the online blogosphere, there is currently no scholarly research investigating the validity of CPA as an actual condition. This current scientific study proposes preliminary steps towards formulating empirical based research to address a crucial and as of now unexamined question: Is Continuous Partial Attention real?
As there currently is none in existence, the first phase towards answering this question will entail the creation of a scale intent on measuring the purported effects of CPA as detailed by Stone. This will broken down into three separate categories to be measured: the physiological effects, the cognitive effects, and the effects on the individual’s state of mind.
Once a reliable scale is developed, it is hoped that an experimental phase will follow whereby attempts will be made to induce CPA in a controlled laboratory environment so that its effects might be measured and recorded. This will be done in an effort to gather valid evidence to support its existence.
If it is found that the claims surrounding CPA are in fact real and valid, then it is a condition causing scientifically unrecognized cognitive and physiological harm to countless unsuspecting individuals in our current techno-reliant society.
 

Mood disorders affect twice as many women as men. Yet most research done on mouse models is male-focused. For example, social stress induces social withdrawal behavior, which is observed in many mood disorders. However, in many species it is difficult to observe the effects of social stress in females because of low aggression levels. We studied the monogamous California mouse because males and females of this species are aggressive. We focused on the mesolimbic dopamine system because its function is altered in accordance with reduced sensitivity to reward in depression. Female California mice exposed to three episodes of social stress show a decrease in social interaction not seen in males. Preliminary studies suggest that social stress activates kappa opioid receptors (KOR) in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Activation of KOR induces dysphoria through activation of p38 MAP kinase. We found more phospho-p38 positive cells in the NAc of males and females exposed to three episodes but not in one episode of social stress. We are now examining effects of the KOR agonist U50,488H and antagonist (norbinaltophimine, NorBNI) on conditioned place aversion and social interaction. Human and animal studies suggest that there may be sex differences in sensitivity of KOR. Preliminary data indicate that a conditioned place aversion and social withdrawal are induced by U50,488H, dose dependently. Knowing the effects of KOR can provide better insight into the long-term effects of social stress and effective ways to target this complex network. Targeting kappa opioid receptors to treat depression may provide fewer side effects than dopamine target approaches because the distribution of KOR is more restricted than dopamine receptors.

What makes one country happier than another? For centuries mankind has searched for an answer to what brings bliss, producing a great variety of answers. Over the past two years I have been on my own search; first collecting data and readings from varying scholars and fields of education, I then presented my findings at last year’s URS. A major division between western medicine and eastern wisdom split my presentation, and left me wanting a more visceral experience. Fortunately, my advisers Dr. David Barash and Dr. Judith Lipton took on a book to tackle my primary question, and allowed me to watch their house in the Central American sunspot, Costa Rica. Additionally, Costa Rica had been named the world’s happiest country by several organizations. Both my advisers and I had some qualms on how these organizations (World Happiness Database, Yale Environmental Performance, Happy Planet Index) addressed such subjective variables, and thus my project split. For the summer, I was to explore the country, conduct informal interviews with locals, tourists, and collect field notes to form answers towards some broad questions. Are Costa Rican’s the world’s happiest? What mechanics create such joy? Finally, what can we learn from them? Presently, I am conducting further investigations on how these organizations rank happiness. Possible methodological faults are addressed by comparing mental health and social inequalities to their rankings. In my attempt to put boundaries on an abstract emotion, quantitative and qualitative in nature, I have distilled cloudy answers to what makes us happy. I view these as primal ingredients towards a universal ‘elixir’. This ‘happiness variable’ takes flexibility, openness, purpose, & awareness to create. I believe we all have the capacity to be happy and hope to present some tools discovered while researching to help construct understanding and accessibility to this enriching experience.

 Understanding the role computer utilization plays in the lives of older adults has been studied closely throughout recent years. The personal well-being of older adults (older than age 62) is determined in this study by whether or not technology is implemented in the lives of older adults. This research examined how often technology, specifically computers and cell phones, is used by older adults to keep in contact with children and grandchildren, and the level of ease they perceive when using said technology. Two local community retirement homes in Seattle, Washington were visited, Hilltop House Retirement Community and Council House Retirement Home. A survey was distributed asking the older adults how easy they perceived using computers and cell phones to be. How often modern technology is used for communication with children and grandchildren was measured based on if the older adult could easily use computers and cell phones, or if they were encouraged to use this technology by family members. Our findings show that ease did not significantly relate to the net total usage of technology by older adults. Encouragement from the family of the older adult to use cell phones was found to be a significant predictor in how often it was used by the older adult, whereas encouragement to use a computer was not significant. It was found that usage of technology becomes easier for older adults who have access to their own technology through deals like cell phone family plans. Much is being done to train older adults how to use such technology earlier in their lives, which will help increase perceived ease of usage in old age. Studies like this will provide gerontologists with information to successfully integrate new technology into the lives of the growing generations of older adults.

Men who undergo androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) often experience depressed and anxious mood, low energy, and cognitive decrements. Studies examining the extent of these changes over treatment have used self-reports from patients to measure change. However, the incidence of self-reported symptoms is 5-25% lower in men and 10-40% lower for patients over the age of 65. Companion report of patient symptoms has been widely used as a tool in oncology when the patient is unable to self-report, and may be more accurate to true patient condition when involving non-physiological symptoms. This study examined self-reports of patients about the effects of ADT compared to the reports of companions. ADT patients currently enrolled as part of a larger study examining treatment effects were approached to participate with a companion (spouse, partner, family member or friend). Companions were contacted via mail and completed questionnaires that the ADT patients had also completed. Measures used included the POMS, FACT-cog, FACIT-F, SF-36, and PHQ9.  The majority of participants (mean age 68 years) were women and the spouses of patients. The areas of assessment analyzed for agreement are mood, fatigue, cognitive difficulties, depression, pain, and emotional difficulties. So far in data analyses, the companion scores for most measures were higher, indicating a more severe endorsement of symptoms than those of patients. The trend so far is for more deviation in dyad scores with lower cognitive test performance. Some patients undergoing ADT may under-report their symptoms in comparison to companion views. Companion assessment may be a valuable tool for assessing non-physiological variables in patients, particularly if ability to self-evaluate is affected by mild or marked cognitive decline. 

Reading comprehension is a critical issue for deaf individuals. Around 60% of deaf students graduating high school have achieved no higher than a fourth grade reading level. The most obvious, and frequently hypothesized, reason for this is deaf individuals are not able to access the auditory basis of the word-to-sound connections present in an alphabetic language. Using Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) we are analyzing neurocognitive processes that mediate the links between subject variables and reading outcomes. ERPs reflect summed, simultaneously occurring postsynaptic activity of cortical pyramidal cells. ERPs are differentially sensitive to aspects of reading (including sound, meaning, and grammar), and the magnitude of these effects relates directly to proficiency in that aspect. The specific aims of this project are as follows: 1) Identify the differences in language-sensitive ERPs between hearing and deaf young adults. 2) Determine the relationship between the size of these ERP effects and standardized reading comprehension scores, especially within deaf participants. 3) Within the population of deaf young adults: A) Identify the differences in language-sensitive ERPs between participants with cochlear implants and those without. B) Determine the best predictors for both robust language-sensitive ERPs and reading scores, focusing especially on presence of a cochlear implant, age at implantation (for those with implants), and speechreading ability. C) Using mediated regression, determine the specific neurocognitive process(es) that mediate the relationship between the predictor variables and reading scores. Three groups of participants are involved: hearing, deaf and deaf with cochlear implants. The ERP analysis is providing a real-time measure of processing of language components. These analyses not only show the differences in language-sensitive ERPs between hearing and deaf participants, but suggest what factors best predict robust language-sensitive ERPs and strong reading scores, and how they may be causally related.

The current study investigated the effect of music type and music tempo on food consumption. Previous research shows that restaurant patrons decrease meal duration and spend less money when background music has a faster (compared to slower) tempo. However, the effect of music type on consumption behavior has been investigated less and few studies have examined both tempo and type together. The study had a between-subjects design, with one control and four experimental groups. 16 participants were randomly assigned to each group (80 participants total (61 female)). The experimental groups had a 2x2 design, with 2 levels of music tempo (fast, slow) and 2 levels of music type (classical, jazz). Participants also indicated their hunger level (7-point Likert scale) before and after the experiment. Participants in the experimental groups listened to 10 minutes of music; the control group simply waited 10 minutes. The dependent variable was number of items of food eaten (choices were goldfish, pretzels, Skittles, M&M, 40 pieces each). Participants were told that it was important that they relax before the actual experiment and to feel free to eat the snacks. Participants in the experimental groups were also told that music helps people relax. The researcher left the room and without informing the participant, recorded eating behavior through a one-way window.  Analysis of before-experiment hunger levels showed a significant difference between jazz and classical groups. Thus, a 2x2 ANCOVA (covariate = hunger) was performed. The results showed a marginal main effect of music type, F(1,64) = 3.758, p = .057, with participants in the jazz group eating more on average (43.4 items) than did participants in the classical group (11.1 items). Neither the main effect of music tempo nor the interaction were significant. An implication from this study was that listening to certain music types could increase consumption. 

Many neurological diseases that are prevalent in our society, as well as serious addictions, affect one’s ability to make optimal decisions. In order to provide further insight on these conditions, the underlying mechanisms and processes of decision-making must first be determined. Previous research shows that the inactivation of amygdala during bouts of stress blocks any stress effects on later decision-making performance. This study aims to answer how this occurs by determining the necessary brain structures for the decision-making task. Because prefrontal cortex lesions have not disrupted decision making on the task in earlier studies, lesions of subcortical regions should negatively affect decision making. Specifically, we lesion the central and basolateral nuclei of the amygdala, or the dorsomedial striatum of several rats, two subcortical regions known to be strongly associated with reward-related behavior. Decision making is assessed through a series of baseline and bias tests on a figure-8 maze. The rats run through a series of equal-reward baseline sessions on the maze, then switch to bias testing for three days (unequal reward), and finally are tested on reverse bias (unequal reward, larger side switched). It is suspected that significant decision-making impairments will be seen after either the amygdala or the dorsomedial striatum is lesioned.

Prejudicial attitudes toward others based on physical appearance arise when an individual’s biological sex does not appear to match their gender category.  Transgendered people are males and females who desire to belong to the opposite gender category than their biological sex.  Transphobia is described as the stereotypical beliefs, prejudicial attitudes, disgust, and rejection of transgendered people based on sexual discrimination.  The participants (N = 57) were exposed to images of transgendered people, and rated each person on six different character judgments.  There were two conditions for this study (photo stimulus: full-body vs. only face/hair), with participants in both conditions being exposed to images of the same people.  Of these images, six were congruent (passable) and six were incongruent (impassible). Participants also filled out the Genderism and Transphobia Scale (GTS), developed by Hill and Willoughby, which measured levels of transphobia.  It was predicted that participants who rated higher in levels of transphobia would hold higher prejudicial attitudes toward incongruent transpersons.  There was a significant interaction effect between congruency and transphobia scores. Higher levels of transphobia were related to lower character ratings of incongruent transpersons, indicating that highly transphobic individuals are more likely to hold prejudicial attitudes towards incongruent transpeople.  There was an interaction effect between the adopted gender of the transpeople in the images and the participant’s level of transphobia. These findings add to the small amount of current research pertaining to perceptions of the transgendered population.

We, the researchers in Dr. Wendy Stone’s Lab, examined the developmental trajectory of motor imitation from 12-18 months and its relation to social functioning and language ability at 24 months in younger siblings of children diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD; ASD-sibs), compared to younger siblings of typically developing children (TD-sibs). Motor imitation is the reproduction of a modeled presentation of a motor event and ASD refers to neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairments in social-communication and the presence of stereotyped, repetitive behaviors. It is important to study ASD-sibs because they are at an increased risk for developing an ASD or sub-clinical symptoms. Young children with ASD display motor imitation deficits, but currently, studies have not examined motor imitation in ASD-sibs within the first 18 months of life. Thus, the age at which impairments emerge remains unanswered. Further investigation of motor imitation is necessary given its importance for learning and social interactions. Using the Screening Tool for Autism in Toddlers (STAT) to measure motor imitation, the Mullen Scales of Early Learning to assess language, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule to determine ASD severity, we expect to find that: a) motor imitation will show significant growth between 12-18 months of age; b) ASD-sibs will have lower baseline levels and lower rates of growth than TD-sibs; c) baseline levels and rate of growth for motor imitation will predict ASD severity and language ability at 24 months. Hierarchical linear models will be used for the developmental trajectories of motor imitation from 12-18 months of age. Linear regressions will be used to examine whether baseline levels and growth predict later ASD diagnosis and language outcomes. This study may provide information leading to earlier detection of ASD. Earlier diagnosis of ASD allows for earlier intervention, which has been shown to improve children’s social-communicative outcomes.  

An animal’s particular level of dominance within the group that they live with has been observed by various studies on its impact in regards to obtaining food, finding sexual partners, and how conflict is dealt with. Macaca fascicularis is a species of primate found all over Southeast Asia in countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Vietnam, and Thailand. They are most commonly known as long-tailed macaques. Studies show that they are matrilineal the males leave tend to leave their groups upon sexual maturity, preserving an abundant of female to male ratio. Studies show that the more dominant males within groups containing multiple males are given higher priority for the access of essential elements such as food and mate selection, sustaining the fitness of the individual. The males who are dominant to the other males should displaying aggressive behavior such as biting, kicking, directed vocalization, lunging, chasing, and threatening gestures suggesting imminent attack whilst the submissive male must in turn perform a submissive behavior. These include lip smacking, fleeing, avoiding, vocalization, or grimacing. We found, through open field observance, that between the only two adult male long-tailed macaques that lived in the observed group, that there was a significant difference in perceived dominance based on agonistic and submissive interactions. Also, the dominant male spent significantly more time engaging in sexual behavior than the submissive male, which aids the supporting the hypothesis that there is a link between dominance and frequency of sexual behavior in groups of long-tailed macaques. The observations that made helped discern how aggressiveness impacts the lives of male animals and their ability to survive and reproduce and provided data on group dynamics, which is important to the overall management of the island population. Supported in part by the UW Center for Global Field Study; PSSP-IPB, Indonesia.

Despite an increasing US-born population, Asian-Americans are often regarded as perpetual foreigners and unrecognized as ‘American.’ The present research examines whether Asian-Americans that are heavier, a stereotype commonly associated with Americans, are perceived as more American than normal weight Asian-Americans. Sixty-eight students were randomly assigned to see a photo of one of three Asian-American women. The same three women were used in both conditions and photos were edited to reflect a change in weight (the weights estimated by participants differed on average by 46 pounds between conditions). Results showed that heavier Asian-Americans were rated as more likely to have been born in the US and rated as worse at math than normal weight Asian-Americans. This research suggests that weight may reduce the extent to which Asian-Americans are perceived as foreigners and increase acknowledgement of their American identity. 

The amygdala is a central structure studied in investigations of fear and anxiety because of its crucial role in acquisition, retention and expression of conditioned fear responses.  Lesions of the amygdala before and after training have abolished conditioned defensive fear responses such as freezing, potentiated startle, and 22-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations.  However, pre-training and post-training lesions of the amygdala have not abolished inhibitory (passive) avoidance learning.  The learning of this particular defensive strategy without the amygdala has caused debate amongst investigators.  Our study uses a 2-food lever closed economy (continuous, long-term, semi-naturalistic environment) behavioral paradigm.  Rats have free choice of levers dispensing rat chow closer or farther from the nesting area.  After a baseline of lever-preferences stabilized, 2 footshocks on average were introduced randomly each hour in the foraging area.  Animals could avoid the shock by remaining in the nesting area. Lesions were performed on the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and central amygdala (CeA).  Whereas the introduction of shock in control animals destabilized initial lever preferences, lesioned animals showed an absence of the destabilizing effect and maintenance of initial lever preferences.  Additionally, both amygdalar-lesioned and control rats decreased their time spent in the foraging area , exhibiting learning of passive avoidance behavior . However, only amygdala lesionsed animals showed deficits in a standard Pavlovian fear conditioning task.  Our results demonstrate that in an environment of long-term, unpredictable danger, the amydala is able to modulate defensive behaviors such as optimal foraging behaviors but not inhibitory, passive avoidance response to danger.  Investigation of the amygdala’s role with regard to behavior under unpredictable threats over a long period of time can help us understand various human pathologies involving chronic exposure to unpredictable environmental stress.

Temperament has been studied extensively in humans, but a growing and controversial body of work is emerging on the subject of temperament in animals. This is critical research in understanding both the fundamental aspects, and the evolution, of temperament. When studying either humans or animals, research is complicated by the difficulty in quantifying and analyzing aspects of temperament. The goal of my research is to investigate the practicality and efficacy of using a Q-sort technique in the assessment of temperament in infant pigtail macaque monkeys. A Q-sort is an ethogram, a complete and exhaustive vocabulary with which to describe a construct such as temperament. The person performing the Q-sort obtains data by ranking concrete behavioral descriptors in terms of their contribution to temperament, with the behaviors most uncharacteristic of an animal being ranked, as well as those most characteristic. The Q-sorts are performed by individuals of diverse backgrounds, levels of experience, and types of interaction with the infants, e.g. researchers vs. veterinary staff. I expect results to be correlated between tester groups, but more strongly correlated within the tester groups. The results will illustrate, one way or the other, the influence that interaction with the subject, and the level and type of training has on a temperament assessment process. Furthermore, the consistency and speed with which the data are acquired will determine whether broad implementation of the Q-sort technique is practical in non-human primate temperament research. Ultimately, the flexibility and scope of the process will help to isolate and characterize key aspects of temperament in pigtail macaques, and will be applicable to other species of animals.

The level of peer substance use is one of the best predictors of an adolescent's own substance use. In addition, impulsivity, the tendency to engage in risky behavior, is associated with higher levels of substance use in adolescents. The goal of this study is to investigate the relationship between peer substance use, individual and peer impulsivity, and individual substance use. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, a nationally representative sample of adolescents will be analyzed. Two sets of analyses will be performed. The first set of analyses uses a 3-level multiple membership model to assess the associations between individual and peer substance use, impulsivity and measures of social status. The second set of analyses employ relational analysis to assess the probability of an individual with a given level of substance use and impulsivity to be a friend of another individual with a certain level of substance use and impulsivity. We predict that for the first set of analyses, that the association of peer substance use on individual substance use will be significant, and moderated by the individual's impulsivity. Additionally, we predict that peer substance use's effect will be attenuated by individual substance use over time. For the second set of analyses we predict that adolescents similar in substance use and impulsivity are more likely to be friends than those adolescents who are dissimilar in substance use and impulsivity. The predicted results would suggest that the mechanisms of both peer influence and peer selection are playing a role in the trajectory of substance use. That is, substance using adolescents select peers that have similar levels of substance use, who then influence them to continue or escalate substance use. The results of this study will suggest social mechanisms that influence substance use, and suggest effective peer based interventions.

Bilinguals outperform monolinguals in a number of tasks involving executive functions or higher-order thinking processes. For bilinguals, the everyday use of more than one language creates increased demands for language selection, inhibition, and switching. Little is known, however, about which facet of the bilingual experience shapes the brain in a way that gives rise to these improvements in executive functions. Previous research on this topic has primarily focused on increased inhibitory control, but the evidence has not been consistent. To explore the possibility that the switching component of executive functions is improved in bilinguals, an fMRI task-switching paradigm, with four experimental conditions (non-switch, language-switch, semantic task-switch, and double-switch), was created. This task allows for the comparison of the neural circuits involved in language switching and task switching in bilinguals. Specifically, this research tests the hypothesis that increased practice with coordinating and executing rules in two languages shapes the general task shifting sub-component of executive functions in bilinguals. Preliminary analysis of the data suggests that behaviorally, for bilinguals, the language-switch condition was significantly easier than the task-switch condition, although the double-switch condition was not significantly more difficult than the task-switch-alone condition. Neurally, the task-switching condition recruited more parietal and inferior frontal regions, whereas, language switching involved more medial frontal regions. All switching conditions recruited the basal ganglia though. Lastly, a comparison between the double-switch condition and the combination of the two single-switch conditions showed that classic working memory regions are recruited when executing a double-switch. By understanding which of the many unique facets of the bilinguals experience shapes the brain to give rise to improved executive functions, we can simultaneously better understand the bilingual brain and gain insight into how executive function might be improved in other populations.

The Social Network Index (SNI) (Berkman & Syme, 1979) has been used to demonstrate that people who are more involved with their networks have lower levels of negative emotional effects, such as depression and stress, and fewer occurrences of physical ailments, such as flare-ups of diseases. Demoralization (Dohrenwend, Shrout, Egri, & Mendelsohn, 1980) measures the general physical and mental response of stress. The college age group is underrepresented in SNI research, which added some difficulty interpreting the results. There were four hypotheses: 1- Is SNI related to demoralization experienced by college students? 2- Does the first generation student population have a different average on SNI, demoralization, life satisfaction, and depression than non-first generation students do? 3- Is SNI related to levels of life satisfaction? 4- IS SNI related to self-reported levels of depression? Participants took an online survey for class credit, N=969 usable. Ages ranged from 16 to 47, mean= 21. There were 341 males and 628 females, and 42.5% were first generation college students. We found that those with higher values on the SNI had lower levels of depression(r=-.24) and demoralization (r=-.27), and had higher levels of life satisfaction(r=.32). When comparing the first generation population to the non-first generation student population, we found that only SNI differed significantly, although this small effect is of little practical importance.

The Monty Hall Dilemma (MHD) is a counterintuitive probability problem adapted from the game show Let’s make a Deal. The participant is presented with three doors, one of which contains a valuable prize. After the participant chooses a door, the host opens one of the doors not chosen by the participant to reveal a “zonk” prize. The participant is then asked if he or she wants to switch to the remaining door. Contrary to intuition, switching would double the chance of winning the prize. Previous research has shown that pigeons (Columba Livia) optimize their performance after basic training, while humans fail to learn to switch, even after extensive practice. However, very little comparative research has been conducted on the MHD variants with uneven probabilities of each door containing the prize. Uneven probabilities would introduce a new level of complexity because the advantage of switching or staying would vary depending on the initial choice, whereas previously the initial choice is irrelevant. I will present on an experimental study that compares the performance of humans and pigeons in the MHD with uneven probabilities of each door containing the prize. My study found that humans underperformed in way consistent with previous experiments while pigeons optimized their performance after some period of training. This result strengthens the hypothesis that humans underperform on the MHD and other probability tasks due to their reliance on heuristics and intuition rather than empirical learning.

Previous research indicates a strong link between early onset of delinquent behaviors and repeat offending in adulthood, supporting the need for earlier intervention and treatment of criminal offenders. The present study explores the link between childhood behavior problems and adolescent and young adult criminal offending to identify at risk populations. It is hypothesized that childhood mental health problems, poor academic performance, and poor home environment will lead to an earlier onset of criminal offending compared with the absence of these characteristics. Criminal offenses will be measured in terms of convictions, probation, court-ordered therapy, court-ordered institutionalization, and use of violence on others. The data will come from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth – Children and Young Adults which interviews children and their mothers every other year concerning a variety of life experiences (N = 11,495; Race: 19.21% Hispanic, 27.73% Black, 53.06% non-Black, non-Hispanic; Gender: 51.07% Male, 48.93% Female; Age range [0,35.12]). Survival analysis will be employed to identify behaviors and experiences reported in childhood that predict the onset of later criminal offending. Survival analysis uses a beginning time (labeled t = 0), an event (independent variable) that occurs or does not occur after t = 0, and an outcome event (dependent variable) to determine how the presence of the earlier event affects the timing of the dependent event. Results of this study may provide ways to identify factors predictive of early criminal offending and to identify high risk populations. More effective treatments can be developed by recognizing how these factors influence certain populations.

Mental health disparities for ethnic minorities constitute a major challenge in the mental health field. Disparities among ethnic minorities may occur due to the underutilization of mental health services, short-treatment stays, and/or inadequate treatment Latino/as may underutilize mental health services because they may tend to seek mental-health-help from general practitioners rather than from specialists. Higher dropout rates among Latino/as may be linked to acceptability and appropriateness of mental health services, and inadequate treatment for Latino/as may be due to language barriers and lack of cultural competence among care providers. Disparity in underutilization of treatment appears to be even more pronounced among Latino/as with mental disorders. For example, only 51.8% of Latino/a adults with a major depressive episode in the past year received treatment compared to 73.3% of similarly afflicted white adults . However, most of the evidence on mental health disparities among Latino/as is derived from studies examining outpatient services, and less is known about disparities in inpatient care. In this archival study we examine disparities among inpatients through a retrospective chart review of Latino/a patients who have received specialty mental health services through inpatient psychiatric treatment. Specifically I examine the proportion of Latino/a patients who have received inpatient care relative to the proportion who resided in a local area. Secondly, I will compare length of stay for Latino/a patients in inpatient care to that of other minority groups as well as whites. Third, I will determine if the outcomes of inpatient care of Latino/a patients are similar or different from the outcomes of other minority clients as well as white clients. Results from this study will have important implications for the delivery of mental health services for Latino/as.

Zoos generate both interest in and money to support conservation efforts. Acting as educational resources and providing visual access to species from around the world, it is important that zoos monitor the behavior of their animals to assess welfare and ensure well-being. There is evidence to suggest that various forms of enrichment can affect the activity patterns of animals in zoos. Enrichment devices, such as specialized hanging feeders, have been found to promote species-typical naturalistic behaviors, such as higher instances of foraging and less inactivity. Studies were conducted to assess the behavioral patterns and exhibit use of different species at the Woodland Park Zoo: the elephants; the Sumatran tigers; the sun, sloth, and grizzly bears; the Humboldt penguins; and the hippopotamuses. Over the course of three years, with over sixty trained research assistants, thousands of data points were collected through scan-sampling techniques on P.D.A.'s. Through statistical analysis, the division of time animals spend on different activities and different regions of their exhibits can be combed for any unnatural patterns or irregularities. Once patterns in the data are established, enrichment opportunities can be discussed in order to ensure that the zoo offers the most beneficial treatment of the animals as possible. In the case of the Humboldt penguins, the data led to a weekly live feeding, during which live trout were released into the penguin enclosure in hopes of encouraging more activity in the water. 

Malaria is a complex disease that poses an immense global public health burden with an annual death rate estimated between 1.5 and 2.5 million. An inclusive understanding of transmission dynamics is essential for the continuing development, improvement, and implementation of vector control strategies. Success will depend on extensive taxonomic research and advanced knowledge of malaria vectors, malaria parasites, and their developing resistance to insecticides and drugs. Examinations into host-parasite relationships among nonhuman primate malarias are needed to identify other likely species of Plasmodium malaria parasites capable of causing zoonoses. The vectors of malaria belong to the mosquito genus Anopheles and there are more than a dozen species of Anopheles malaria vectors affecting Indonesia. In July, I will travel to Tinjil Island, located off the coast of West Java. There is no current record of mosquito fauna for Tinjil and consequently no data regarding which malaria parasites affect it. My investigations into these matters will be essential to the operation of local fisherman camps and the natural habitat breeding colony of Macaca fascicularis, the long-tailed macaque. I will collect samples of larvae, pupae and adult forms of mosquitoes on mainland Java for confirmation of the Anopheles genus before heading to Tinjil. On Tinjil I will collect samples of larvae, pupae and adult forms for genus and species identification by utilizing an onsite stereomicroscope. I expect to follow up this initial entomological survey with molecular detection methods to identify possible members of a species complex, morphologically indistinguishable Anopheles taxa, which may display differing abilities to transmit malaria. By identifying these species of mosquito, the implementation of integrated vector management policies needed to improve the current vector control strategies for West Java and surrounding areas will be possible.

The present cross-cultural study was conducted among college students in the United States who were recruited through the social media website, Facebook, and directed to the online survey website, Survey Monkey. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between perfectionism and perceived external pressure for academic success among Korean international and European-descent American college students. Hypotheses were: 1) external pressure for academic success is positively correlated with perfectionism for both Korean international and Caucasian-American participants, 2) Korean students are more collectivistic than European-American students, 3) Korean students perceived a higher level of external pressure for academic success, especially from their parents, than European-American students and 4) Korean students’ level of perfectionism is higher than that of European-descent American college students. Forty-three students (20 European-American and 23 Korean students) responded to the survey. Although the study’s findings did not fully support all four hypotheses, there was a significant positive relationship between the level of perceived external pressure and the level of perfectionism among Korean international and European-descent American college students combined. The major implication of the results is that external pressure for academic success is an important aspect of the development of perfectionism regardless of culture. Future research with different cultures will be necessary to test the generality of the result.

Information from rods and cones influences color vision because all signals travel on the same neural pathways. We are studying the rod effects on hue for small foveal stimuli compared with those of large peripheral stimuli in order to understand the neural mechanisms of rod influence on small foveal stimuli. Using a CRT display, we measured the rod hue biases that shift the balance point of the four unique hues (red, green, blue, yellow) at low light levels for foveal stimuli of varying sizes: 0.5°, 1°, and 2° diameters, and compared them to results for large peripheral stimuli. We are assessing the reliability of rod hue biases across subjects. So far, we have data on three observers, and more in progress. The hypothesis that direct stimulation of adjacent rods and cones is needed to produce rod hue biases predicts that we would not find foveal effects because there are few rods in the fovea. Results so far vary among observers, both in the specific unique hues that show rod effects, and in the dependence of these effects on stimulus size. For one observer, all rod hue biases disappear for stimuli smaller than 2° diameter. For two other observers, some specific rod hue biases persist for the smaller sizes. In addition, the pattern of rod effects for specific unique hues does not match for foveal and peripheral stimuli. These results suggest that, at least for some observers, foveal rod hue biases are mediated by neural interactions acting laterally across the retina. Further testing will address alternative explanations based on differential eye movements and attempt to understand the basis for foveal-peripheral differences. These results will allow for greater understanding of the rod influences on the fovea and of neural mechanisms of color vision.

The hippocampus is well known for its role in spatial memory. A better understanding of how the hippocampus functions will provide us with insight into how memories are made and stored. This knowledge may ultimately lead to improved preventative and treatment strategies under conditions in which the hippocampus is altered, such as after traumatic brain injury or in cases of age-related memory impairment. Within the hippocampus there are cells commonly known as “place cells”. These cells are most likely to fire when a navigating organism is in a certain space in an environment, known as that cell’s “place field”. The activity of place cells may be modulated by dopamine input, which can be released tonically or phasically. For example, when overall dopamine input from the ventral tegmental area is disrupted, the place fields of cells within the CA1 subregion of the hippocampus are disrupted and spatial memory deficits occur. To test the idea that phasic dopamine, in particular, is necessary for normal place cell activity and spatial memory performance, we tested spatial working memory while recording electrophysiological activity of neurons in the hippocampus in normal mice and genetically engineered ‘knockout’ mice whose phasic dopamine signaling was selectively disrupted. Preliminary electrophysiological results show differences between the groups, including a nearly significant increase in the spatial selectivity that corresponds to a significant decrease in the size of place fields from the knockout mice when compared to controls. Behaviorally, knockout mice adapt more quickly than control mice following a change in the location of a reward, indicating that phasic dopamine input is not required to perform this task. Rather, removal of the phasic firing pattern may have unmasked a potential facilitating role of tonic dopamine release in flexible goal directed behaviors.