Pyroclastic Density Currents (PDCs) are the most dangerous hazard associated with explosive volcanic eruptions. Due to the danger associated with observing these ground-hugging currents of searing hot gas, ash, and rock in real time, their processes are poorly understood. In order to understand flow dynamics, including what controls how far PDCs travel and how they interact with topography, it is necessary to study their deposits. The May 18th, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens produced multiple PDCs, burying the area north of the volcano under tens of meters of PDC deposits. The eruption is one of the best observed on record, and deep drainage erosion over the past 30 years has exposed the three-dimensional structure of the PDC deposits, making this intensive study possible. For each flow unit we measure deposit thickness, bedding style, clast size, density and sorting, and degree of pumice rounding with distance from source. The intricate vertical and lateral facies changes and complex cross-cutting relationships away from source, including rapid changes in bedding and granulometry characteristics within each unit, indicate that the currents interacted with complex topography early in their propagation. We use this observation and analysis to better understand and interpret flow dynamics. The data we collect will be used to refine and validate numerical models of PDCs, ultimately providing a more accurate hazard assessment for explosive eruptions.

Perception of natural hazards and risk among Pacific Northwest (PNW) residents is not well known. Familiarity with a given population's perception of natural hazards and the threats they present is vital for the development of effective education prior to and emergency management response after a natural event. While much work has been done in other active tectonic regions, little work has been completed in our region. The objective of this work is to assess the current perception of earthquake and volcanic hazards in the PNW, and to better understand the factors which drive the public's behavior concerning preparedness and response. We developed a survey to assess the participants' knowledge of natural hazards common to the region, perception of risk concerning these hazards, and level of preparedness should a natural hazard occur. The survey was distributed to the PNW public via a class project in 'Living with Volcanoes' (ESS 106) in March of 2011 and 2012, which returned more than 1000 responses. Here we highlight the responses from the UW student population because of their uniqueness as a large semi-transient population (typical residence of less than 5 years). Knowledge of natural hazards and proximity to hazard sources was found to be low/inaccurate, which corresponds to a low perception of risk. Understanding/awareness of evacuation/coping protocol for natural hazards was also found to be low, suggesting this large, semi-transient population lacks the understanding of proper preparation for and response to a natural hazard. Results from the survey indicate need for education of this population concerning the risks of natural hazards in this region and the steps for better preparedness. The ultimate goal of further education is to create a "culture of safety" rather than "moments of reaction" (USGS initiative).

Life is abundant on planet Earth but we have relatively few locations in which we can study environments similar to those on other celestial bodies. One possible terrestrial feature that is similar to those on some of the moons of Saturn and Jupiter is Lake Vostok, located under 4000 meters of ice in Antarctica. If we can prove that life can survive in this desolate environment that has been covered by ice for the last 35 million years, there is a heightened chance that extraterrestrial life exists within our own solar system. To study this area, we are designing a probe that will melt through the ice and take measurements from the lake to determine if bacteria or other life forms can survive in such a harsh environment. The main goals of my project were to create a mechanism that will allow the probe to move vertically in the lake via user control, determine the optimal cable and wire storage method for such a large endeavor, and eventually design a housing for the probe that can withstand immense pressure without leaking. I did this by using 3D computer aided design software and pressure and stress analysis tools. From these designs, I manufactured actual prototypes to test my concepts. Eventually, this work will lead to a functioning probe that will survey Lake Vostok and other sub-glacial lakes in an attempt to find evidence of life.

Since the social realization of barrios and ghettos in the United States, scholastic analyses of their locations have formed conclusions ranging from proximity to labor centers to social population controls (Jargowsky, 1996) (Meyer, 2000). One topic which social scientists have avoided when addressing the geographic localization of poverty, is that of the plot itself. Specifically are there undesirable qualities, either geographically or geophysically, of the land where ghettos are built that makes it less attractive to populations with higher social standing? Here we show that a majority of “high poverty” zones in three American cities are built in areas which are more susceptible to damage by earthquakes and/or landslides. These conclusions were formed, by performing geographical comparisons of poverty population maps comprised of U.S. Census data to geological hazard maps provided by United States Geological Survey. Seattle, Los Angeles; both focuses of “The Other Burgess Model,” and Hawaii were selected for comparison. In all three cases, areas with the largest concentration of families and individuals under the U.S. poverty line were more likely to be in areas of greater threat from earthquakes or landslides. My results suggest that populations living in poverty are more likely to be both physically and financially affected by these two natural forms of disaster. In the United States where safety from landslide and earthquakes are protected under the Bill of Rights, it is both illegal and unjust for populations with less access to resources to be directed towards areas of greater hazard. I anticipate this project will be a starting point for further research on the imbalance of safety concerns brought about social, economic, and ethnic inequalities.

High gradient mountain streams are characterized by drops known as steps, followed by depressions in the bed known as pools. This step-pool morphology governs habitat availability and sediment transport of many high gradient streams. A notable characteristic of most pools is the presence of clast-size based sorting on their bottoms. We seek to understand how this sorting forms, as it may provide more insight into the currently debated topic of how such pools are formed. We propose that there is a decrease in shear stress on the bed from the base of a step to the lip of a pool. We suspect the effects of this difference in shear stress are proportional to changes in stream gradient, as step height has been shown to increase with gradient. If our hypothesis is true, we suspect to see a range of sorting patterns from low gradient to high gradient mountain streams. We will survey a number of pools in streams of varying gradient to determine whether such a range can be documented. Preliminary field observations have indicated that such a range is present, although we seek to quantify that observation. For each pool, we will use a pebble count procedure accompanied by geometric measurements of the pool to quantify sorting patterns and evaluate the relationship between sorting and stream gradient. By understanding how sorting is affected by gradient, we can start to determine what aspects of stream hydraulics control pool formation.

This project focuses on using microbiota to determine environmental changes in Puget Sound, specifically benthic foraminifera. Benthic foraminifera are single celled organisms that produce a shell and live at the bottom of the ocean. Because foraminifera have characteristic ecologic requirements, they can be used to document environmental changes over time. In addition, foraminifera’s short reproductive cycle (weeks to months) and species specific reactions to environmental changes enable high resolution studies of ecosystem health and reaction to mitigation efforts. By examining the density, diversity and assemblage composition of foraminifera in samples of sediment several determinations can be made about environment in the local region at the time the sediment was deposited. This study focuses on stations in Bellingham Bay, WA using 11 sediment samples taken between 1997 and 2011 by the Washington state Department of Ecology. From 2002 to 2006 a clear drop in foraminiferal density is observed in Bellingham Bay. This indicates a serious change in environment for the area during this period; changes that may include an increase or decrease in pollution, an increase in pH, or changing climatic conditions. In the Bellingham Bay area a very low species diversity is also observed. This lack of diversity can also indicate various climatic or other environmental conditions. For example, the most dominant species in these samples, Eggerella advena, is known to colonize areas of sewage pollution in other bays. By comparing the Bellingham Bay stations to others in Puget Sound, it will be possible to document environmental shifts over the last 15 years.

The Cordilleran Ice Sheet filled Puget Sound during the last ice age. Its maximum extent is defined by glacial deposits, including large "erratic" boulders, near Olympia in the southern Puget Lowland. The age of maximum glaciation can be determined using the build-up of cosmic ray produced nuclides in these rocks. We sampled two large granite erratics and separated quartz for analysis of cosmic ray produced Be-10. After dissolution, beryllium was extracted and purified, and the Be-10/Be-9 ratio measured by accelerator mass spectrometry. The Be-10 concentrations (approximately 75,000 atom/g) are used to calculate the time the boulders have been exposed to cosmic rays, and thus date the retreat of the Puget Lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet from its maximum extent.

The volume of glaciers and ice sheets controls global sea level and plays a major role in climate change. However, it is difficult to reconstruct the history of glaciers and ice sheets from their deposits because these deposits are commonly overrun and re-worked in each successive glaciation. An alternative approach is to measure cosmic-ray-produced nuclides, such as isotopes Beryllium-10, Aluminium-26, and Chlorine-36 (in order of decreasing half-life) in bedrock. These nuclide concentrations build-up due to cosmic ray exposure during interglacial periods when glaciers are at their smallest extent. The present day concentrations are the cumulative result of exposure during ice-free periods and radioactive decay during periods of ice cover. By working with nuclides of different half-lives, we can obtain information about the long-term glacial history. We are measuring these nuclides in samples from elevation transects on mountains beside Scott Glacier and Beardmore Glacier in Antarctica. Concentrations of all three increase with elevation. Summit samples have Be-10 and Al-26 concentrations close to saturation levels, but lower Cl-36 concentrations. This suggests that ice cover during glacial periods was thicker and more prolonged in the last 0.5 – 1 Myr than the 2-5 Myr average. In contrast, samples from the base of these mountains have lower and more uniform concentrations of the three nuclides, which is consistent with glacial erosion of the surfaces. Measuring depth profiles in the Beardmore Glacier samples will allow us to test this interpretation.

We are studying Earth’s upper atmosphere, one of the least understood atmospheric regions, wind and temperature fields to determine stimuli behind the movement of neutral particles (pushed, heated, interacted with charged particles, etc.). This project focuses on these regions in the Southern Hemisphere, which are essential to understanding movement in all areas of our atmosphere. The climate, long term trends, of the MLT (Mesosphere-Lower Thermosphere) will be studied via instrumentation at the Mount John Observatory (MJO) in New Zealand. The optical observations will provide characteristics, such as wind, kinetic temperature, and emission rates, for groups of species of molecules, which act as tracers for the ambient gas. The time series of motions and temperature from MJO, which provides an understanding of upper atmospheric behavior, extends slightly over one solar cycle. This extensive amount of data can provide us with a broader view into the effects of Global Climate Change. My role is to alter the spectrometer design to enhance the light collection section enabling improved measurements of the atmospheric changes and increased accuracy regarding wind/temperature. Future efforts consist of investigating effects of the lower on the upper atmosphere, and studying relative importance of the processes in action.

The transport of heavy metals in the environment poses serious threats to ecological and human health. One major factor that influences the transport of heavy metals in the environment is interactions with microbial surfaces. To better understand the influence that endospores, a ubiquitous microbial surface in the environment, have on metal transport, we studied cadmium and uranium adsorption onto endospore surfaces. We focused on three main experiments: how fast metal adsorbs to spore surfaces (kinetics), the extent of metal adsorption, and the reversibility of metal-spore adsorption. These data are essential to deriving thermodynamic parameters that may quantify the interactions under conditions not directly studied in the laboratory. The ultimate goal of this research is to give environmental engineers the ability to incorporate microbe-metal interactions into geochemical models of contaminant transport and possibly aid in optimizing bioremediation strategies using endospores.

Puget Sound is home to countless aquatic species, all of whom are dependent on healthy water conditions. At the bottom of the trophic web are foraminifera—single celled organisms that directly reflect the environment they live in, because each species has a very narrow range of acceptable habitats. Foraminifera can be used to assess local conditions on a very fine scale, and to assess the large-scale health of the body of water. This type of study has been done on numerous bodies of water throughout the world and is well proven, but has never been applied to Puget Sound. As a small part of this overarching project, I focus on identifying and analyzing foraminifera from Port Madison, a part of Puget Sound relatively sheltered from anthropogenic impact. Port Madison thus acts as a control with which to compare samples from other locations in Puget Sound. Preliminary results indicate that Port Madison has a very high diversity of foraminifera with at least 12 different species immediately apparent, but a relatively low abundance of about 28 foraminifera per gram of sediment. In comparison with other locations throughout Puget Sound, this shows that anthropogenic conditions decrease the diversity of foraminifera, and areas like Port Madison where little anthropogenic activity is present yield higher diversity. Data from sheltered areas help build a knowledge base for a healthy Puget Sound, which in turn gives us an idea of what to work toward in future attempts to promote a healthier Puget Sound.

Orbital spectroscopy allows for the analysis of surface composition on the planet Mars, and is providing evidence for the presence of liquid water throughout the planet’s history. We use hyperspectral images from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) to identify a variety of compositions on the planet. These compositions can provide information about the conditions present at the time of their formation. In many cases, as where carbonates are identified, these compositions are clear evidence for the presence of liquid water in the martian past. We identify minerals by their unique absorptions at specific wavelengths through the examination of CRISM surface reflectance data across 438 wavelengths from 1.0 to 3.9 microns. For identification, the CRISM spectra are matched to spectra of laboratory samples from Earth. However, there are differences between these spectra that give some new insight into the combination of minerals present and their formation process. By applying factor analysis to the CRISM dataset where the spectral signature of the mineral components vary independently from one another, the measurements can be expressed as a linear sum of the components. We have applied this target transformation and factor analysis technique to CRISM spectra to identify and isolate the various mineral components present, even under circumstances where the mineral components are only present in minor abundances and mixed with other spectral signatures. Because the entire dataset is used to retrieve mineral spectral signatures, this analysis greatly reduces instrumental error to provide well-defined CRISM spectra. Ultimately, by applying our data analysis technique to the global CRISM dataset, we will have a stronger and more detailed understanding of surface composition and aqueous processes on Mars. Based on these processes we can then invoke different conditions conducive for the development of life on Mars.

The Earth’s magnetic field deflects most of the energetic particles contained in solar wind, but some are captured and trapped in regions called radiation belts. Sometimes, high-energy particles migrate from the radiation belts into Earth’s upper atmosphere, where they interact with matter to produce X-rays. Our project focuses on attempting to understand radiation belt loss processes by analyzing the X-ray data. Professor Michael McCarthy and I modeled an existing X-ray detector on the computer and simulated electron populations (having various energy distributions) as they move through the upper atmosphere. We recorded the energy distribution of X-rays captured in the detector. We then compared this distribution with the actual X-ray energy distribution recorded by real experiments. This method of working backwards limits what the energy distribution of the original charged particles may have been. This is significant, because knowing the energy distribution of charged particles in radiation belts and understanding how they move into the upper atmosphere will allow engineers to design spacecraft and satellites that are more resistant to damage from high-energy particles and X-rays. It is also an interesting research question that will teach us about the radiation belts of other planets in the universe that have magnetic fields. Our project will be applied to more experiments; in December 2012, the research team will return to Antarctica to release more balloons equipped with X-ray detectors into the upper atmosphere. Another extension of this work is to model the effects of high-energy protons from solar wind on Earth’s upper atmosphere.

Weather prediction has become an integral tool in our society, giving us the ability to prepare for storms and route aircraft and ships around dangerous weather. Achieving a better understanding of lightning, its causes, and the patterns involved in it will allow further improvement of weather modeling as well as better interpretation of existing data. We aim to better understand the electrical evolution of these storms and the local control of stroke power by using the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) to track oceanic thunderstorms in a variety of environments while examining the radiated power of the lightning. The analysis of WWLLN data using MATLAB will allow us to evaluate trends as well as the factors affecting those trends, and the development of MATLAB tools and techniques will allow said evaluation to proceed quickly and smoothly. The goal of this project was to develop the tools required in order to lay the groundwork for future study into the way oceanic thunderstorms change and evolve.

Rare earth element (REE) concentrations in Mount St. Helens (MSH) volcanic units remain constant (or slightly decrease) with increasing silica (from andesites to dacites). Owing to the commonly held view that REE are incompatible with typical mineral assemblages in mafic to intermediate magmas, crystal fractionation was not considered to be a viable mechanism for generating dacitic melts. Instead, partial melting of a low REE crustal source was considered more likely. REE are, however, highly compatible in apatite and there is evidence of its early crystallization in mafic to intermediate magmas. Hence, we have reevaluated models for crystal fractionation in order to determine a possible mineral assemblage (including apatite) required to reproduce REE trends. Using published partition coefficients, reasonable modal amounts of the major minerals (amphibole, clinopyroxene, Fe-oxides, and plagioclase) and 1-2% apatite, it appears possible to closely mimic the REE patterns in dacites, particularly if considering some assimilation of depleted lithologies in the deep crust.